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THE 

COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS 
OF    THE    SEA; 


OR, 


MARINE   CONTRIBUTIONS   TO  FOOD, 
INDUSTRY,   AND  ART. 


By  p.  L.  SIMMONDS, 


EDITOR  OP    "the  journal  OK   APPLIED    SCIENCE,"    AUTHOR   OF    "ANIMAL   PRODUCTS   AND 

THEIR   USES,"    "a   DICTIONARY   OF   TRADE   PRODUCTS,"    "TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE," 

AND  OTHER   WORKS. 


A 


WITH  THIRTY-TWO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NEW   YORK: 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY. 

549    &    551     BROADWAY. 

1879. 


PREFACE. 


Having  published  a  series  of  papers  in  the  Art  Journal, 
under  the  title  of  "  Marine  Contributions  to  Art,"  and  some 
other  articles  on  various  products  obtained  from  the  Sea 
in  my  serial  publications,  TJie  Technologist  and  The 
Jonvjial  of  Applied  Science,  it  occurred  to  me  that  they 
might  be  conveniently  collected  into  a  volume,  which 
would  form  a  companion  to  books  I  had  previously 
published  on  "  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom,"  and  on  "Animal  Products:  their  Preparation 
and  Uses."  Hence  the  appearance  of  the  present  work, 
which,  I  believe,  will  supply  a  want,  by  furnishing  accurate 
details  respecting  articles  and  products  of  considerable 
importance  in  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

Although  some  works  have  been  published  from  time 
to  time  on  special  fisheries,  none  have  treated  the  subject 
as  a  whole,  or  gone  over  the  field  of  research  in  a  systematic 
manner,  so  as  to  show  the  importance  of  the  Commercial 
Products  of  the  Sea  to  various  countries.     I  have  endea- 


iv  Preface. 

voured  to  bring  down  the  official  statistics  in  the  several 
chapters  to  the  latest  date,  and  therefore  I  trust  the  work 
may  be  found  a  useful  and  readable  handbook  for  all 
those  interested  in  marine  productions. 

While  I  do  not  claim  any  merit  for  originality  in  this 
book,  I  may  state  that  I  have  taken  every  pains  to  consult 
all  published  documents  treating  on  the  subject  that  have 
come  under  my  notice,  especially  those  issued  in  the  United 
States  and  on  the  Continent,  and  also  the  official  publica- 
tions printed  by  different  Governments. 

As  the  book  professes  to  deal  only  v/ith  the  Products  of 
the  Sea,  I  have  necessarily  had  to  exclude  much  interesting 
matter  relating  to  the  River  and  Lake  Fisheries  of  various 
countries. 


P.  L.  SIMMONDS. 


29,  Cheapside,  London, 
October,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


General  Introduction 


PART  I. 


FOOD  PRODUCTS  OBTAINED  FROM  THE  SEA. 


CHAPTER 

I. 

The  Cod  Fishery  in  Various 

Countries  ... 

25 

II. 

The  Herring  Fishery 

41 

III. 

The  Pilchard  Fishery 

... 

61 

IV. 

The  Mackerel  Fishery 

... 

66 

V. 

The  Salmon  Fishery ... 

... 

73 

VI. 

The  Sardine  Fishery 

77 

VII. 

The  Tunny  Fishery    ... 

... 

83 

VIII. 

Crustacea 

... 

90 

IX. 

The  Trepang  Fishery 

... 

105 

X. 

Cephalopods,  etc.,  as  Food 

... 

116 

XL 

Miscellaneous  Fisheries 

... 

127 

XII. 

Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca 

131 

PART  11. 

MARINE    CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    INDUSTRY. 

I.  Introductory  Remarks  ...  ...  ... 

II.  Sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries    ...  ... 

III.  The  Sponge  Fishery  of  the  Bahamas     ... 

IV.  Sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean  ...  ... 


15' 
155 
174 
1S3 


vi  Contents. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.     Oils  from  Marine  Mammals     ...             ...  ...             ...             198 

VI.     Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  connected  therewith  ...             ...     212 

VII.     The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obtained  ...             ...             226 

VIII.     The  Isinglass  of  Commerce              ...             ...  ...             ...     23S 

IX.     Other  Fish  Products  and  their  Uses        ...  ...             ...             257 

X.     Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells  ...             ...     267 

XI.     Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells — Continued   ...  2S8 

XII.     Seaweed  and  its  Uses        ...             ...             ...  ...             ...     311 

XIII.     Marine  Salt                ...             ...             ...  ...             ...             339 

PART  III. 

MARINE   CONTRIBUTIONS   TO  ART. 

I.     Tortoiseshell  and  the  Turtle  Fisheries            ...  ...             ...     351 

II,     Mother-of-Pearl  and  its  Uses    ...             ...  ...             ...             370 

III.  Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries          ...              ...  ...              ...     402 

IV.  Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries  ...             ...  ...             ...            436 

V.     Amber  and  the  Amber  Fisheries      ...             ...  ...             ...     463 

Index       ...            ...            ...            ...            ...  ...            ...           479 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

Coal-Fish          ...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...              4° 

1.  Holothuridse  species               ...             ...             ...             ...  ...     107 

2.  Palolo  viridis    ...              ...              ...              ...              ...  ...              122 

3.  Oysters      ...              ...              ...              ...              ...              ...  ...      132 

4.  Sponge  showing  the  Outgoing  Water-currents           ...  ...             156 

5.  Outer  Surface  of  different  kinds  of  Sponge         ...              ...  ...     166 

6.  Cup-shaped  Sponges  in  natural  position,  rooted  to  rock  ...              169 

7.  Varieties  of  Sponges               ...             ...             ...             ...  ...     iSi 

8.  Syrian  Sponge  Fishers   ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             187 

9.  SiHcious  Sponges.      I.    Euplectella  aspergillum.      2.    Holtenia  car- 

penteria              ...              ...              ...              ...              ...  ...     194 

10.  Euplectella  speciosa        ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             196 

11.  Phoca  Groenlandica                ...             ...             ...             ...  ...     200 

12.  Phoca  Oceanica               ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             203 

13.  Wahus      ...             ...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...     204 

14.  Greenland  or  Right  Whale,  and  Spermaceti  Wliale  ...  ...             206 

15.  Black  Porpoise  (Phocaena  vulgaris)       ...              ...              ...  ...     208 

16.  Grampus  (Phocasna  orca)               ...              ...              ...  ...             208 

17.  Halicore  Australis,  and  Manatus  Amcricanus     ...              ...  ...     210 

18.  The  Sturgeon  ...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             240 

19.  Chank  Shell  (Turbinella  pyrum)           ...              ...              ...  ...     288 

20.  Saw  used  by  Natives  for  cutting  Segments  of  the  Shell  ...              290 

21.  Segment  of  Shell,  and  Bangle,  or  Ornamented  Bracelet  of  United 

Segments    ...              ...              ...              ...              ...  ...             291 

22.  I.   Money  Cowry.      2.  Ovulum  angulosum.       3.   Dentalium    Shell 

(Money  of  West  Coast  Indians).     4.  Fillet  of  Nautilus  Shells 

(from  Samoa)    ...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...     296 


viii  List  of  Illustrations. 


23.  Pinna  nobilis,  and  Pinna  rugosa  ...              ...              ...  ...             307 

24.  Varieties  of  Seaweed              ...             ...             ...  ...             ...     316 

25.  Ulva  latissima   (Green    Sloke),  and  Chondrus  crispus  (Carrageen 

Moss)...             ...             ...              ..             ...  ...             ...     319 

26.  Hawksbill  Turtle             ...              ...              ...              ...  ...             352 

27.  Green  or  Edible  Turtle          ...             ...             ...  ...             ...     364 

28.  Diving  for  Pearl  Shells  at  Panama               ...              ...  ...             384 

29.  Mother-of-Pearl  Shell,  and  Anodonta  herculre  ...  ...              ...     411 

30.  Corallium  nobilis,  or  red  Coral,  with  a  piece  magnified,  showing 

the  Polypes       ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             ...     437 

31.  Varieties  of  Coral           ...             ...             ...             ...  ...             44° 


THE  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS 
OF  THE   SEA. 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

Importance  of  marine  products — Uses  of  the  animals — Number  of  species 
of  fishes — French  bounty  on  fisheries — Statistics  of  British  fisheries — Fish 
as  an  article  of  food — Definition  of  "  prime  "  and  "  offal  "  in  the  London 
market — Quantity  of  fish  brought  to  London — Value  of  fish  and  other 
marine  products  imported — Value  of  exports — Statistics  of  British,  French, 
and  North  American  fisheries — French  fisheries,  and  consumption  of  fish 
in  Paris — Value  of  the  trade  in  fish  in  foreign  countries. 

The  commercial  products  obtained  from  the  sea  are 
more  numerous  and  important  than  would  be  generally 
supposed  by  those  who  have  not  looked  closely  into  the 
subject.  The  huge  marine  mammals  furnish  us  with  valu- 
able oil,  skins,  whalebone,  spermaceti,  ambergris,  etc.,  as 
well  as  food  to  some  tribes.  The  utility  of  fishes,  properly 
so  called,  to  man  is  not  very  various.  For  the  most  part, 
they  serve  only  as  food  ;  but  in  this  respect  they  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  a  great  part  of  the  human  race,  who 
live  only  on  this  class  of  animals.  Some  savage  nations 
possess  the  art  of  preparing  fish  in  a  great  variety  of  ways, 
even  as  a  kind  of  flour  and  bread.    Fish  are  also  salted  and 


2  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

dried,  smoked   and  potted,  preserved  in   oil,  and  pounded 
into  a  dry  mass. 

In  Catholic  countries  the  consumption  of  fish  during 
their  fasts  and  festivals  is  very  large  ;  all  other  food  being 
then  prohibited  by  their  priests. 

To  a  great  part  of  the  civilized  world  the  taking  of  the 
herring,  the  pilchard,  the  mackerel,  the  cod,  the  tunny,  the 
salmon,  the  sardine,  and  other  fishes  is  of  great  value,  and 
gives  employment  to  many  hundreds  of  persons.  The  oil 
obtained  from  the  shark,  cod,  herring,  and  other  fish  is 
used  for  lamps,  medicine,  and  in  industry.  Many  parts 
of  fish  are  employed  in  the  arts  and  manufactures — as 
the  scales  of  the  bleak  for  making  false  pearls,  and  those 
of  other  fish  for  making  ornaments  ;  the  skins  for  tanning 
and  other  purposes.  Isinglass  is  obtained  from  the  air  or 
swimming  bladders  of  many.  Fish  roes  are  not  only  used 
as  food  delicacies,  but  also  for  bait  in  the  fishing  grounds. 
Fish  maws,  shark's  fins,  and  beche-de-mer  or  trepang  (a 
species  of  HolotJnirid)  are  considered  great  food  delicacies 
by  the  Chinese,  forming  the  chief  ingredients  for  their 
gelatinous  soups. 

The  sea  is  more  abundantly  stocked  with  living  crea- 
tures than  the  land.  In  all  parts  of  the  world  a  rocky 
and  partially  protected  shore  perhaps  supports,  in  a  given 
space,  a  greater  number  of  individual  animals  than  any 
other  station.  The  sea  is  filled  with  animals  of  several 
kinds,  and  each  layer  of  water  in  depth  seems  to  have  its 
own  varieties,  thus  resembling  the  changes  which  take 
place  according  to  elevation  in  the  organized  portions  of 
the  land. 

The  animals  are  among  the  mightiest  and  among  the 
smallest.  There  are  swimming  beasts,  as  whales,  seals, 
and  walruses ;  there  are  fishes  of  various  kinds  and  sizes, 


Gene7^al  Introduction.  3 

crustaceans,  soft  or  jelly  fishes,  the  molluscs,  down  to  those 
creatures  resembling  live  plants — the  zoophytes  or  coral- 
lines, which  partake  of  the  qualities  of  plant,  animal,  and 
mammal.  All  these  are  peculiar  to  the  sea  or  the  fresh 
waters  ;  and  the  ocean  has  its  marine  plants — seaweeds 
which  remain  growing  on  the  ground  shoals,  or  rise  to  the 
surface  and  then  float.  These,  too,  have  many  useful  or 
economic  applications. - 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  speak  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ocean  generally,  but  only  to  restrict  the  investigation 
to  those  which  are  of  some  use  to  man. 

Pliny  enumerated  but  94  species  of  fish  ;  Linnaeus  in- 
creased the  number  to  478  ;  but  recent  naturalists  have 
described  over  13,000  species,  one-tenth  of  which  confine 
themselves  to  the  fresh  waters. 

The  human  race  derives  almost  incalculable  benefits 
from  them,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  extent  and  value  of  the 
river,  coast,  and  sea  fisheries  of  the  world. 

The  sea,  as  Commander  Maury  well  observes,  has  its 
offices  and  duties  to  perform.  So  may  its  inhabitants  ;  con- 
sequently he  who  undertakes  to  study  its  phenomena  must 
cease  to  regard  it  as  a  waste  of  waters.  He  must  look 
upon  it  as  a  part  of  the  exquisite  machinery  by  which  the 
harmonies  of  nature  are  preserved,  and  then  he  will  begin 
to  perceive  the  developments  of  order  and  the  evidence  of 
design,  which  make  it  a  most  beautiful  and  interesting 
subject  for  contemplation. 

The  harvest  of  the  sea  has  not  yet  been  attended  to 
and  garnered  to  the  same  extent  as  the  land.  Some 
nations,  as  the  Chinese,  have,  it  is  true,  long  given  close 
attention  to  the  profitable  utilization  of  its  commercial 
products,  and  several  European  nations  and  the  Americans 
have   also    prosecuted    certain    fisheries  ;    but    systematic 


4  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

and  scientific  management  has  only  of  late  years  been 
specially  directed  to  the  various  branches  which  have  been 
termed  pisciculture,  aquiculture,  and  ostreiculture,  and  the 
transfer  of  the  fishes  of  one  locality  to  those  of  another 
district. 

In  respect  of  fish,  no  natural  cause  prevents  their  co- 
existence in  the  greatest  abundance  with  man  in  his 
highest  state  of  civilization  and  refinement,  in  the  midst 
of  the  greatest  agricultural  or  manufacturing  opulence. 

Easily  scared  in  the  first  instance  by  unusual  sights — 
for  it  has  been  proved,  by  a  series  of  curious  and  interesting 
experiments  on  the  trout,  that  most  kinds  of  fish  are 
insensible  to  sounds — the  natives  of  the  water  are  speedily 
reconciled  to  appearances,  which  become  habitual  when 
found  to  be  connected  with  no  danger. 

By  all  civilized  and  commercial  nations — especially 
the  Dutch,  the  English,  the  Americans,  and  the  French — 
the  products  of  the  sea  have  been  accounted  fully  as 
important  as  those  of  the  land  ;  because  they  not  only 
afford  cheap,  nutritious,  and  abundant  food  for  the 
people,  but  contribute  largely,  moreover,  to  the  national  re- 
sources, and  to  the  maintenance  of  a  maritime  ascendancy. 
The  Americans  and  French  offer  bounties  to  their  fisher- 
men, which  of  course  tells  against  the  fisheries  in  British 
America. 

France  pays  about  540,000  francs  a  year,  averaging 
about  £2  to  each  man  engaged  in  the  fishery.  This  is  an 
expensive  process,  but  it  is  alleged  that  it  would  cost  twice 
as  much  to  train  an  equal  number  of  men  for  the  navy  in 
any  other  way.  In  1861  a  French  commission,  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  deep-sea  fisheries,  said  in  their  report, 
"  It  is  on  fisheries  that  at  this  day  repose  all  the  most 
serious    hopes  of  our  maritime    enlistments,"  and    it    was 


General  Introduction.  5 

added  that  "  no  other  school  can  compare  with  this  in 
preparing  them  so  well,  and  in  numbers  so  important, 
for  the  service  of  the  navy."  These  bounties  are  also 
defended  on  the  ground  that  the  French  pursue  the  cod 
fishery  at  a  great  disadvantage  of  distance,  and  from 
having  no  possessions  in  the  neighbourhood  except  two 
rocky  islets. 

The  fishery  question  is  of  urgent  consequence  to  the 
people  generally.  Our  population  is  increasing  rapidly  ; 
cities  and  towns  are  gradually  covering  fields  which  used 
to  be  available  for  agriculture  ;  and  although  steam-farming 
is  increasing  the  efficiency  of  husbandry  labour,  it  cannot 
possibly  augment  the  supply  of  home-grown  food  so 
rapidly  as  the  bread-eaters  increase  in  number.  Fish  is 
among  the  articles  of  diet  which  are  too  little  familiarized 
among  us,  and  any  information  ought  to  be  welcomed 
which  increases  our  knowledge  of  fishing  grounds  within 
reach  of  England. 

That  the  supply  of  fish  is  most  abundant,  and  indeed 
inexhaustible,  on  all  our  coasts,  has  never  been  called 
in  question.  "  The  coasts  of  Great  Britain,"  says  Sir 
John  Boroughs,  "  doe  yield  such  a  continued  sea-harvest 
of  gain  and  benefit  to  all  those  that  with  diligence  doe 
labour  in  the  same,  that  no  time  or  season  in  the  yeare 
passeth  away  without  some  apparent  meanes  of  profitable 
employment,  especially  to  such  as  apply  themselves  to 
fishing  ;  which  from  the  beginning  of  the  yeare  unto  the 
latter  end,  continueth  upon  some  part  or  other  of  our 
coastes,  and  these  in  such  infinite  shoales  and  multitudes 
of  fishes  are  offered  to  the  takers,  as  may  justly  move 
admiration,  not  only  to  strangers,  but  to  those  that  daily 
bee  employed  amongst  them."  That  this  harvest,  ripe  for 
gathering  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  without  the  labour  of 


6  The  Commercial  Prodttcts  of  the  Sea. 

tillage,  without  expense  of  seed  or  manure,  without  the 
payment  of  rent  or  taxes,  is  inexhaustible,  the  extraordi- 
nary fecundity  of  the  most  valuable  species  of  fish  would 
alone  afford  abundant  proof 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  large  supply  of  whole- 
some, palatable,  and  nutritious  food,  yielded  by  the  sur- 
rounding seas  of  Great  Britain,  every  acre  of  which  is 
infinitely  more  productive  than  the  same  quantity  of  the 
richest  land  ;  notwithstanding  that  these  salt-water  fields 
are  perpetually  "  white  to  the  harvest,"  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that,  in  the  inland  and  middle  counties  of  England,  the 
labouring  classes  scarcely  know  the  taste  of  fish,  which  ot 
late  years  has  become  a  scarce  article,  even  in  some  of  the 
maritime  counties.  Formerly  salmon,  whilst  in  season,  was 
the  common  food  of  all  ranks  in  the  northern  counties 
bordering  on  the  sea,  and  in  most  parts  of  Wales,  and  what 
could  not  be  used  fresh  was  salted  for  winter  consumption  ; 
there  was  scarcely  a  family  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  sea- 
port or  salmon  fishery  that  did  not  lay  up  a  supply  cf 
pickled  salmon  for  the  winter. 

The  produce  of  the  sea  around  our  coasts  bears  a  far 
higher  proportion  to  that  of  the  land  than  is  generally 
imagined.  The  most  frequented  fishing  grounds  are  much 
more  prolific  of  food  than  the  same  extent  of  the  richest 
land.  Once  in  the  year  an  acre  of  good  land  carefully 
tilled  produces  a  ton  of  corn,  or  two  or  three  cwts.  of  meat 
or  cheese.  The  same  area  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  on 
the  best  fishing  grounds  yields  a  greater  weight  of  food  to 
the  persevering  fisherman  every  week  in  the  year.  Five 
vessels  belonging  to  the  same  owner,  in  a  single  night's 
fishing,  have  brought  in  17  tons  weight  of  fish,  an  amount 
of  wholesome  food  equal  in  weight  to  that  of  50  cattle, 
or  300  sheep.     The  ground  which  these  vessels  covered 


GeneraC  Introduction.  7 

during  the  night's  fishing  could  not  have  exceeded  an  area 
of  50  acres. 

Large  as  is  the  present  supply  of  fish,  and  considerable 
the  refuse  of  our  fisheries  as  manure,  much  greater  things 
are  yet  to  be  accomplished  in  this  way,  in  both  our  supply 
of  food,  and  of  fertilizers  for  our  land.  The  increasing 
scarcity  and  high  price  of  butcher's  meat  leaves  no  doubt 
that  a  great  field  is  open  for  the  application  of  increased 
capital  and  skill  to  our  sea-fisheries.  Though  the  supply 
of  fish  to  Billingsgate  is  constantly  increasing,  it  fails  to 
keep  pace  with  the  demand.  The  well-known  fishing 
grounds  of  the  North  Sea  are  yet  only  partially  fished. 
The  Dogger  Bank,  which  has  an  area  of  several  hundred 
square  miles,  and  is  most  prolific  of  fish,  is  to  a  great 
extent  unworked  by  the  trawlers,  and  new  grounds  are  still 
being  discovered  where  fish  are  found  in  great  abundance. 
Between  England  and  the  continent  the  average  depth  of 
the  German  Ocean  is  90  feet.  One-fifth  of  it  is  occupied 
by  banks,  which  are  always  being  added  to  by  the  muddy 
deposits  of  the  rivers  of  both  countries.  In  extent  they 
are  equal  to  the  superficial  area  of  Ireland.  To  these 
banks  the  animals  of  the  ocean  chiefly  resort,  and  this 
great  and  prolific  field  is  free  to  the  industry  of  all. 

It  was  stated  by  a  recent  writer  in  Blackwood s  Maga- 
zine that  no  department  of  British  industry  has  received 
such  a  remarkable  impulse  from  railways  as  the  sea- 
fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom.  They  have,  in  fact, 
completely  revolutionized  it.  Before  the  Eastern  Counties 
Railway  was  constructed,  the  transport  of  fish  from  Yar- 
mouth to  London  was  effected  by  light  vans  drawn  by 
post-horses,  and  the  quantity  amounted  to  about  2000  tons 
a  year.  Nearly  double  that  quantity  is  now  conveyed  to 
London  and  the  ffreat  manufacturing  towns  in  the  course 


8  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

of  a  fortnight.  During  the  year  1853,  the  anmis  mirabilis 
of  the  Yarmouth  fishery,  12,000  tons  of  fresh  herrings 
alone  were  despatched  from  that  place  to  London  and  the 
provinces.  At  Grimsby  the  quantity  of  fish  landed  in 
1872,  and  transmitted  by  rail,  averaged  600  tons  a  week,  or 
at  the  rate  of  more  than  31,000  tons  a  year.  The  pro- 
digious quantity  of  wholesome  food  now  daily  forwarded 
into  the  interior  of  the  country  from  our  principal  fishing 
stations  almost  exceeds  belief.  The  station-master  of 
Lowestoft  informed  the  Royal  Commission  of  1864  that  in 
the  two  preceding  years  he  had  often  despatched  from  that 
town  100  truck-loads  of  fish  a  day,  each  truck  containing 
from  three  to  four  tons.  From  4000  to  5000  tons  of  her- 
rings, and  1000  tons  of  other  fish,  have  been  sent  by  rail 
way  from  the  town  of  Dunbar  alone  in  the  course  of  a 
single  week  into  the  interior  of  Scotland.  Before  this 
rapid  mode  of  transport  was  invented,  the  consumption  of 
fresh  fish  was  restricted  to  the  seaboard,  the  metropolis, 
and  a  few  of  the  most  considerable  provincial  towns.  To 
the  mass  of  our  island  population  the  red  lierring  was  the 
only  representative  of  sea-fish  which  ever  met  their  eyes  ; 
now  there  is  scarcely  a  hamlet  in  which  the  poor  man's 
frugal  dinner  is  not  occasionally  varied  by  a  dish  of  fresh 
herrings  or  some  other  cheap  fish,  which  the  facilities  of 
transit  from  the  coast  have  brought  to  his  door.  The 
increase  of  fishing  power  brought  of  late  years  to  bear 
upon  the  sea  is  equally  remarkable.  In  18 14  only  five 
vessels  were  fitted  out  as  deep-sea  trawlers  from  Yarmouth, 
and  not  one  from  any  other  port  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
There  cannot  now  be  less,  on  the  most  moderate  estimate, 
than  1000  sea-going  trawlers,  hailing  from  British  ports 
and  working  in  the  North  Sea,  and  certainly  not  less  than 
300  in  the  English  Channel,  and  100  in  the  Irish  Sea.    For 


General  Introduction.  9 

many  years  there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  number 
of  fishing  smacks  in  every  port  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Fish,  crayfish,  and  many  other  marine  products  form 
an  easily  digestible  and  pleasant  food,  which,  it  is  main- 
tained, is  also  calculated  to  stimulate  mental  activity. 
Civilized  nations  cannot  abstain  from  this  important  ali- 
ment without  detriment  to  themselves.  Fish,  even  without 
any  elaborate  dressing,  form  a  good  and  easily  prepared 
meal  for  the  labouring  classes.  Their  flesh  contains  as 
large  an  amount  of  protein  as  pork  ;  100  lbs.  of  fish  flesh 
contains  as  much  nourishing  matter  as  200  lbs.  of  wheat 
bread  or  700  lbs.  of  potatoes.  It  is  an  essential  advantage 
of  the  fisheries  that  their  products  supply  delicacies  for  the 
tables  of  the  rich  and  wholesome  cheap  food  for  the  poorer 
classes. 

According  to  calculations  made  some  years  ago,  the 
daily  consumption  of  fish  per  head  amounted  to  one-seventh 
of  a  pound  in  London,  one-twentieth  of  a  pound  in  Paris, 
and  one-fortieth  of  a  pound  in  Berlin. 

The  great  importance  of  fish  as  an  article  of  food  may 
be  clearly  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  total  supply  of 
fish  to  London  in  the  course  of  a  single  year.  At  this  time 
there  are  between  800  and  900  trawl  vessels  engaged  in 
supplying  the  London  market  with  fish  ;  and  assuming 
the  annual  take  for  each  to  average  90  tons,  this  would 
give  a  total  of  some  80,000  tons  of  trawled  fish.  This 
quantity  is  irrespective  of  the  vast  quantities  of  herrings, 
sprats,  shell-fish,  and  descriptions  of  fish  which  are  sup- 
pUed  by  other  modes  of  fishing.  On  the  east  coast  of 
England,  and  in  the  London  fish-market,  the  trade  divide 
the  fish  into  two  classes — "  prime  "  and  "  offal."  The 
"  prime  "  comprise  sole,  turbot,  brill,  and  cod.  The  "  offal  " 
are  chiefly  haddock,  plaice,  and  whiting.     The  term  "  offal  " 


lO         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

seems  to  have  been  introduced  when  the  demand  for  fish 
and  the  means  of  conveying  it  to  market  were  much  more 
hmited  than  at  present,  and  when  it  was  therefore  often 
found  necessary  to  throw  overboard  much  of  the  less 
vahiable  descriptions,  which  could  not  bear  the  cost  of 
transport.  The  use  of  the  word  "  offal  "  may  now  be  held 
to  signify  the  more  plentiful  and  lower-priced  class  of  fish, 
which  finds  its  way  in  the  greatest  abundance  to  the  large 
towns.  The  proportion  of  "  prime  "  and  "  offal  "  fish  caught 
by  the  trawl  varies  considerably,  but  may  be  taken  at  an 
average  of  one-fourth  "  prime  "  to  three-fourths  of  "  oftal." 
Of  "  prime,"  the  sole  seems  to  be  the  general  favourite.  It 
is  more  eaten  in  London  than  any  other  description  of 
"prime"  fish,  and  during  the  summer  a  considerable  supply 
is  sent  daily  from  the  London  fish-market  to  Paris. 

Notwithstanding  the  enormous  increase  which  has 
taken  place  in  the  pop  ilation  of  the  m.etropolis  during  the 
last  twenty  years,  it  is  very  questionable  if  the  weight  of 
fish  annually  received  has  not  actually  diminished.  The 
falling  off  in  the  supplies  which  reach  us  by  water  is  very 
remarkable.  In  1848  it  amounted  to  108,739  tons;  but 
in  1 87 1  it  fell  to  44,077  tons.  This  reduction  has  been 
gradual  but  continuous  from  year  to  year.  The  quantity 
brought  to  town  by  railway  has,  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
creased, but  hardly  in  the  ratio  of  the  diminution  by  water. 
There  are  no  statistics  of  our  fish  supplies  by  rail  available 
prior  to  1865,  but  the  quantity  which  reached  us  in  this 
way  in  1871  was  72,386  tons.  The  fish  imports  into 
London  by  water  were  in — 

Tons. 
1S48  ..  ...  ...  ...  108,737 

1871        ...  ...     _        ...  ...  44>077 

The  total  weight  of  fish  brought  to  London  by  water 
and  rail  was  in — 


General  Introduction.  1 1 

Tons. 

1866  ...      ...      ...      ,,,    132,004 

1867  ...      ...      ...      ...    122,523 

1S68    ...      ...      ...      ...    122,287 

1869  ...      ...      ...      ...     113,782 

1870  ...      ...      ...      ...     117,095 

1871  ...      ...      ...      ...     116,463 

Our  imports  of  fish  from  abroad  have  largely  increased, 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  figures,  giving  the  value : — 

1856       ...         "...  ...  ...    ^^228,075 

1866       ...  ...  ...  ...      631,552 

1S76         ...  1,459.974 

Of  the  imports  in   1876,  966,119  cwt. — about  one-third 

was  fresh  fish  not  of  British  taking. 

We  also  imported  in  1876  train  oil  or  blubber  to  the 
value  of  ;^445,262,  spermaceti  or  head  matter  valued  at 
-^290,359,  and  seal-skins  value  i^2 19,540,  making  a  total 
of  ;^2,4i  5,135.  This  is  exclusive  of  sardines,  anchovies, 
caviare,  oysters  and  shell-fish,  pearls,  mother-of-pearl,  tor- 
toise-shell, coral,  sponges,  and  other  articles  obtained  from 
the  fisheries,  which  would  swell  up  the  aggregate  to  over 
^3,000,000  of  products  obtained  from  the  sea. 

We  exported  in  that  year,  of  British  produce  : — 

Salmon  to  the  value  of  ...  ...  ...  ;^39,oS3 

Cod  and  ling          ,,  ...  ...  ...  44,383 

Herrings                  ,,  ...  ...  ...  732,737 

Pilchards                ,,  ...  ...  ...  19,222 

Unenumerated       ,,  ...  ...  ...  67,332 

Oysters                  „  ...  ...  ...  50,047 

;^952,8o4 
In  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  Irish  fisheries  have 
declined  by  fully  one-half  in  the  number  of  boats  and  men 
employed.  In  1870  there  were  stated  to  be  under  9,000 
vessels  and  boats,  and  38,000  men  and  boys.  Owing  to 
the  numerous   indentations,   the  coast    line  of    Ireland   is 


1 2  The  Cojmnercial  Prodiuts  of  the  Sea, 

estimated  at  upwards  of  2500  miles.  The  length  along 
which  the  more  important  herring  and  mackerel  fisheries 
are  carried  on  does  not,  however,  exceed  250  miles,  and  the 
value  of  the  capture  of  these — ^^330,000 — amounts  to  fully 
two-thirds  of  all  the  fish  taken  around  the  coast.  When, 
therefore,  it  is  considered  that  on  the  remaining  2250  miles 
of  coast  not  more  than  ;£"i  50,000  of  fish  is  taken,  it  will  be 
understood  why  an  equal  amount  of  cured  fish  has  to  be 
imported  from  America  and  other  foreign  countries. 

The  latest  ofificial  report  on  the  Irish  fisheries  shows 
that,  exclusive  of  the  home  consumption  in  1876,  fish 
were  shipped  to  England  to  the  value  of  ^504,719,  thus 
divided  : — 

Herrings  ...  ...  ...     £22'j,gc)Q 

Mackerel  ...  ...  ,.,        111,266 

Cod  ,,.  ...  ...  ...        165,463 

•       ^504.719 

The  number  of  craft  of  all  kinds  engaged  off  Ireland 
in  fishing  for  sale,  in  1876,  was  returned  at  5965,  with 
crews  of  22,773  men  and  920  boys.  In  Scotland,  in  the 
same  year,  the  number  of  boats  was  14,547  of  106,440  tons, 
with  crews  of  45,263,  and  there  were  as  many  more  other 
persons  employed  as  curers,  coopers,  etc.  The  value  of 
the  boats  was  estimated  at  ;^455,8ii,  of  the  nets  ;^563,8ii, 
and  of  the  lines  ^^108,347,  making  a  total  of  ^T  1,1 27,994. 

We  have  official  annual  reports  respecting  the  fisheries 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland;  but  the  collection  of  returns  for 
England  was  discontinued  with  1850,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  branding  and  punching  of  the  barrels  of  cod  and 
ling  ceased.  We  are  not  able,  therefore,  to  form  any  very 
accurate  estimate  of  the  extent  and  progress  of  the  coast 
fisheries  for  England  and  Wales. 

The  immense  value  of  the  fisheries  of  British  North 


General  Introduction.  13 

America  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  following  figures. 
About  1000  decked  vessels  and  17,000  open  boats  are 
engaged  in  fishing  within  the  four  provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  and  Ontario  ;  for  the 
other  parts  of  the  Canadian  Dominion  we  have  no  authentic 
details.  42,000  men  are  actually  engaged  in  fishing,  while 
200,000  persons  are  estimated  to  be  supported  almost 
entirely  by  this  industry  in  its  various  branches.  The 
annual  produce  of  the  fishery  of  these  four  provinces  is 
abo-ut  i^2,ooo,ooo,  and  the  boats,  nets,  and  other  instru- 
ments represent  a  capital  of  over  ^600,000.  In  Nova  Scotia 
alone  there  are  9500  vessels  and  boats  engaged  in  the 
fisheries,  valued  at  i^2 10,000,  manned  by  19,000  men,  with 
nets,  etc.,  to  the  value  of  ^i  14,000. 

The  fisheries  are  not  only  of  importance  to  us  in  con- 
sequence of  the  vast  amount  of  wealth  that  can  be  drawn 
from  the  deep,  apparently  without  diminution,  or  exhaust- 
ing its  source,  but  because  by  this  means  a  body  of  able 
and  hardy  seamen  may  be  found  to  conduct  the  commerce 
of  a  maritime  country  during  peace,  and  to  become  its 
gallant  defenders  on  the  ocean  in  time  of  war.  This  inex- 
haustible source  of  national  wealth  and  greatness  appertains 
in  an  especial  manner  to  the  British  Possessions  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  has  long  excited  the  rivalry  of 
the  citizens  of  the  New  England  States,  who  are  aided  by 
bounties  granted  by  the  general  Government. 

The  Atlantic  fishing  ground  situated  in  British  waters 
reaches  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  along  the  southern  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia,  around  Cape  Breton  and  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  embracing  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  extends  to  the 
Island  of  Anticosta  and  Newfoundland,  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  the  Magdalen  Islands.  There  is  probably 
no  part  of  the  world  where  such  extensive  and  valuable 


14         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

fisheries  are  to  be  found,  as  within  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence. Nature  has  bountifully  provided  within  its  waters 
the  utmost  abundance  of  those  fish  which  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  man,  as  affording  not  only  nutri- 
tious and  wholesome  food,  but  also  the  means  of  profitable 
employment.  These  fisheries  are  prosecuted  as  well  in  the 
open  waters  of  the  gulf,  as  within  every  bay,  harbour,  creek, 
cove,  and  inlet  in  connection  with  it. 

Quebec  possesses,  in  the  river  and  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
an  extent  of  coast  of  lOOO  miles,  where  the  cod,  herring, 
mackerel,  salmon,  and  other  fisheries  are  carried  on  suc- 
cessfully. In  the  men  that  sail  the  fishing  fleets  of 
British  North  America,  we  see  the  elements  of  a  very 
powerful  marine,  which  will  be  found  invaluable  in  times  of 
national  danger. 

The  following  figures  show  the  value  of  the  exports 
only,  the  produce  of  the  fisheries  of  our  North  American 
colonies  for  the  year  1873  : — 


Canada     ... 

-    ;fi54.992 

New  Brunswick      ... 

70,823 

Nova  Scotia 

...       717.301 

Prince  Edward  Island 

200,  ICO 

British  Columbia    ... 

406,000 

Newfoundland 

...    1,631,086 

In  the  previous  year  it  was  ;^i,ooo,ooo  more,  without 
British  Columbia,  of  which  the  return  was  not  given.  This 
return  merely  assumes  the  market  value  of  the  products  in 
the  colonies  ;  but  in  the  foreign  markets  to  which  they  are 
sent  they  will  realize  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  more,  and  this,  be  it 
observed,  is  exclusive  of  the  large  local  consumption  offish, 
oil,  etc. 

Boston  is  the  fish-market  of  the  United  States  ;  and 


General  Introduction.  15 

the  product  of  the  New  England  fishery  is  estimated  at 
^1,600,000  yearly,  of  which  Boston  alone  handles  more 
than  half. 

At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  fish  forms  the  principal 
article  of  the  food  of  the  population,  and  the  poorer  classes 
live  almost  entirely  on  it,  its  price  being  lower  than  in 
almost  all  other  civilized  countries. 

It  is  difficult,  nay,  almost  impossible  to  form  an  estimate 
of  the  probable  consumption  of  fish  within  the  colonial 
borders.  Judging,  however,  from  the  great  quantities  used 
in  a  dried,  pickled,  and  smoke-dried  state,  as  an  article  of 
internal  traffic,  and  taking  into  consideration  that  fish  is 
almost  the  chief  food  of  the  lower  orders  in  Cape  Town  and 
the  other  ports,  the  consumption  must  necessarily  be  very 
considerable. 

The  principal  foreign  market  for  the  fish  trade  of  South 
Africa  is  the  Mauritius,  the  exports  of  dried  fish  to  that 
colony  being  from  2000  to  2500  tons  annually,  of  the  value 
of  ^^"30,000.  The  average  import  of  fish  at  the  Mauritius 
in  the  three  years  ending  1870  was  about  44,000  cwt. 
There  are  also  fisheries  carried  on  from  the  island,  for  in 
1870  there  were  329  fishery  works,  and  at  Rodriguez  44, 
employing  90  boats  and  193  men. 

At  Ceylon  the  imports  of  fish  are  about  77,000  cwt. 
annually,  and  at  Singapore  about  40,000  cwt.  of  dried  and 
salted  fish  are  imported  yearly. 

On  the  coasts  of  some  of  the  Indian  presidencies  there 
are  extensive  fisheries. 

How  many  a  locality  in  the  Indian  Ocean  is  there  to 
which  the  lines  of  Milton  are  applicable  ! — where 

"  Each  creek  and  bay 
With  fry  innumerable  swarm,  and  shoals 
Of  fish,  that  with  their  fins  and  shining  scales 
Glide  under  the  green  waves  ;  .   .   . 


1 6         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

.  .  .  part  single,  or  with  mate 

Graze  tlie  seaweed,  their  pasture,  and  through  groves 

Of  coral  stray  ;  or  sporting,  with  quiet  glance 

Show  to  the  sun  their  wav'd  coats  draped  with  gold." 

The  Chinese  are  pre-eminently  a  fish-eating  people, 
and  the  vast  demand  for  fish  there  can  only  be  supplied 
by  artificial  means.  The  shad  is  called  by  the  Chinese 
"sam-li;"  it  is  of  superior  flavour  and  great  size,  and  is 
produced  by  artificial  means  and  conveyed  in  "  congs," 
large  vessels  made  of  coarse  earthenwai"e,  to  all  parts  of  the 
empire. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  nearly  a  tenth  of  the  popula- 
tion of  China  derive  their  means  of  support  from  the 
fisheries.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of  boats  crowd  the 
whole  coasts,  sometimes  acting  in  communities,  sometimes 
independent  and  isolated.  There  is  no  species  of  craft  by 
which  a  fish  can  be  inveigled  which  is  not  practised  with 
success  in  China.  Every  variety  of  net,  from  vast  seines, 
embracing  miles,  to  the  smallest  hand-filet,  in  the  care  of  a 
child;  fishing  by  night  and  fishing  by  day;  fishing  in 
moonlight,  by  torchlight,  and  in  utter  darkness ;  fishing  in 
boats  of  all  sizes  ;  fishing  by  those  who  are  stationary  on 
the  rock  by  the  seaside,  and  by  those  who  are  absent  for 
weeks  on  the  wildest  of  seas ;  fishing  by  cormorants ; 
fishing  by  divers ;  fishing  with  lines,  with  baskets — by 
every  imaginable  decoy  and  device.  There  is  no  river 
which  is  not  staked  to  assist  the  fisherman  in  his  craft. 
There  is  no  lake,  no  pond,  which  is  not  crowded  with  fish. 
A  piece  of  water  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  a  field  of  fertile 
land.  At  daybreak  every  city  is  crowded  with  sellers  of  live 
fish,  who  carry  their  commodity  in  buckets  of  water,  saving 
all  they  do  not  sell  to  be  returned  to  the  pond  or  kept  for 
another  day's  service. 


General  Intj'odiicticii.  1 7 

In  the  port  of  Okhotz,  Siberia,  fish  is  almost  the  only 
food  of  the  inhabitants,  flour  and  groceries  being  unheard- 
of  luxuries,  and  meat  very  scarce.  Even  the  cattle  and 
poultry  are  fed  on  fish. 

The  general  idea  that  the  Southern  Australian  seas  are 
inferior  in  piscatory  resources  to  the  colder  waters  of 
Europe  seems  to  be  wholly  unfounded.  At  proper  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  when  reasonable  precautions  have  been 
taken  and  the  close  months  observed,  the  creeks  and 
estuaries  are  leaping  with  fish. 

In  Victoria,  not  only  around  the  great  inland  sea-lake 
of  Port  Phillip,  for  the  sustenance  of  the  crowded  popula- 
tion of  the  capital,  but  in  outlying  ports  and  sequestered 
coves,  families,  singly  and  in  clusters,  draw  their  whole 
subsistence  from  the  fisheries.  The  total  number  of  fishing- 
boats  belonging  to  the  Hobson's  Bay  district  amounts  to 
nearly  500,  and  all  of  them  are  busily  employed. 

Let  us  glance  briefly  at  the  statistics  of  the  value  of 
some  of  the  principal  fisheries.  The  Norwegian  fisheries 
bring  in  to  the  hardy  Northerners  not  less  than  ^^3,200,000 
per  annum,  a  magnificent  sum  for  a  country  possessing  a 
population  of  barely  2,000,000  souls.  In  Russia  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  fisheries  are  estimated  at  ;^3, 500,000 ;  in 
Denmark  they  bring  in  about  ^160,000 ;  and  the  value  of 
those  of  France  reach  about  ;^3, 500,000. 

The  take  of  the  French  fisheries  for  1873  was  thus 
ofiicially  returned  : — 


Cod  fishery,  Iceland 

,,             Newfoundland 
Herring  fishery    ... 
Mackerel     ,,        ...              ... 

Francs. 
••        6,719,774 

••        9,981,547 
..        9,401,307 
..        3,483,343 

Sardine       ,,        ...             ... 

Anchovy      ,, 

..      13,757,534 
469,695 

Carried  forward 

..      43,813,200 

1 8         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


Fiancs. 

Brought  forward 

...     43,813,200 

Other  species 

...     25,878,896 

Oysters  ... 

...        1,956,334 

Mussels... 

817,211 

Other  shell-fish     ... 

485,478 

Crustaceans 

...       2,285,458 

Line  fishery 

...       3,094,787 

78,331,364  =  ^3,133,254 

Besides  seaweed  and  sand  as  officially  valued  at  ;^6o,ooo. 

The  French  fisheries  gave  employment  to  the  follow- 
incf : — 


Cod  fishery  of 

Newfoundland 

and  Iceland. 

Coast  fishery. 

420 

19,585 

54,622 

101,488 

11,965 

65,501 

Vessels  and  boats 

Tonnage 

Men  employed 

Out  of  a  gross  return  of  80,000,000  francs  the  coast 
fisheries  brought  in  over  63,000,000  francs. 

Both  in  the  home  and  foreign  fisheries  many  improve- 
ments have  been  carried  out  of  late  years  in  boats,  nets, 
and  appliances.  In  1873  a  great  improvement  was  effected 
in  France  by  the  introduction  of  capstans  worked  by  steam 
for  hauling  in  the  nets.  Steam  vessels  are  also  now 
employed  in  fishing  operations  at  Teste,  Rochelle,  and 
other  ports. 

The  sale  of  fish  in  the  Paris  markets  in  1854  was  to  the 
value  of  7,500,000  francs  (^^300,000),  of  which  about 
1,000,000  francs  was  for  fresh-water  fish.  In  i860  the  sales 
reached  about  10,000,000  francs.  Paris  consumed  the 
following  quantities  of  fresh-water  fish,  etc. : — 


Eels 
Barbel 
Bream 
Pike 


1854. 

lbs. 

tV: 

230,440 

...  328,000 

23,870 

... 

...    23,826 

34,160 

...    94,176 

325,840 

.'ard 

...  354,232 

Carried  for\^ 

...  800,234 

General  Introduction.  19 


1854 

1877. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Brought  forward 

...    800,234 

Smelts 

— 

...   290,454 

Gudgeon  ... 

40,686 

...     39,060 

Lampreys . . . 

IJSIJ 

2S6 

Perch 

17,870 

...    28,738 

Tench 

66,8So 

...   154,674 

Trout 

— 

5,128 

Various  small 

white  fish         252,480 

...  1,157,434 

Crabs 

...     -     ...      182,988 

...    328,008 

Snails 

— 

...     190,284 

Frogs 

— 

22,562 

3,016,862 
— valued  at  1,500,000  francs. 

There  was  also  sold  of  sea-fish  at  the  central  markets, 
31,489,202  lbs.,  valued  at  13,191,845  francs,  together  a 
total  of  over  ;^634,000  sterling. 

The  consumption  of  other  fish  was  stated  in  1854  to 
have  been  of — 

Preserved  fish.  lbs. 

Sardines      ...  ...  ...  ...  510,000 

Tunny         ...  ...  ...  ...  22,000 

Anchovies  ...  ...  ...  ...  90,000 


622,000 

Salted  fish.  lbs. 

Codfish  in  casks  ...  ...  ...  2,156,000 

,,       dried  ...  ...  ...  4,000 

Salted  herrings  ...  ...  ...  176,000 

Smoked     ,,  ...  ...  ...  300,000 

Mackerel  ...  ...  ...  ...  306,600 

Salmon      ...  ...  ...  ...  1,440 


3,004,040 


The  sale  of  these  has,  however,  more  than  doubled  in  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century. 

It  is  not  possible  to  form  an  accurate  estimate  of  the 
extent  or  value  of  the  fisheries  and  the  products  of  the 
fisheries  in  various  countries.      But   as   regards   our   own 


20         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

special  commerce,  we  have  some  few  official  figures  to  work 
upon.  Taking  the  latest  year  for  which  full  and  complete 
returns  are  given,  we  find  that  the  imports  into  the  United 
Kingdom  reach  over  ;^6,ooo,ooo  in  value.  Guano  is  in- 
cluded because  it  is  a  deposit  of  sea-birds,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  considered  to  some  extent  a  product  of  the  sea. 

The  exports  of  fish  of  British  catch  in  1874  were  valued 
at  ;^ 1, 077,065,  and  if  we  add  the  export  of  salt  for  the 
fisheries,  fishing  nets,  hooks  and  lines,  sails  and  cordage, 
and  other  supplies,  we  shall  have  fully  a  value  of  i^i, 500,000. 

The  great  city  of  Amsterdam  and  the  present  unsur- 
passed seaport  of  Liverpool  arose  from  the  industry  and 
enterprise  of  a  few  fishermen,  who  found  those  spots  con- 
venient for  their  dwellings  and  pursuits — a  fact  of  history 
thus  poetically  recorded  : — 

"  Where  Mersey's  stream,  long  winding  o'er  the  plain, 
Pours  his  full  tribute  to  the  circling  main, 
A  band  of  fishers  chose  their  humble  seat, 
Contented  labour  blest  their  fair  retreat. 
Inured  to  hardships,  patient,  bold,  and  rude, 
They  braved  the  billows  for  precarious  food  ; 
Their  straggling  huts  were  ranged  along  the  shore. 
Their  nets  and  little  boats  their  only  store. 
But  now  perceive  the  alter'd  prospect  round, 
Where  splendid  tracts  of  opulence  are  found  ; 
Yet  scarce  two  hundred  annual  rounds  have  run 
Since  first  the  fabric  of  this  power  begun. 
His  noble  stream  inglorious  Mersey  roU'd, 
Nor  felt  his  waves  by  labouring  art  control'd  ; 
Along  his  sides  a  few  small  cots  were  spread, 
His  finny  brood  their  humble  tenants  fed ; 
At  opening  dawn,  with  fraudful  nets  supplied, 
The  paddling  skiff  would  brave  the  specious  tide, 
Ply  round  the  shores,  nor  tempt  the  dangerous  main. 
But  seek  ere  night  the  friendly  port  again. " 


General  Introduction. 


21 


Value  of  the  Imports  of  Products  of  the  Fisheries  into 
THE  United  Kingdom  in  1870. 

We  give  the  statistics  of  this  year,  as  it  is  the  latest 
for  which  details  have  been  furnished  by  the  Board  of 
Trade.  None  of  the  minor  articles  are  now  enumerated 
in  the  official  trade  returns  : — 


Fish 

••      ;^768,3S7 

Brought  forward   ... 

^2,361,483 

Isinglass 

83,023 

Sponge 

160,162 

Mother-of-pearl 

shells  . 

76,489 

Tortoise  and  turtle 

shell 

33.926 

Oil,  cod-liver... 

64,157 

Coral,  rough  ... 

S,68i 

,,    whale 

890,553 

,,    beads     ... 

9,917 

Whale  fins 

79,482 

Cowries 

.. 

6,347 

Orchella  weed 

112,693 

Caviare 

1,670 

Pearls 

16,675 

Guano             .,. 

,. 

3,476,680 

Seal-skins 

270,024 

;^"6,o55,866 

Carried  foi 

■\\-ard   . 

.    £2,lb\,£,Zi 

If  we  could  trace  the  wealth  of  nations  arising  from 
their  fisheries,  it  would  be  found  to  be  beyond  calculation. 

The  following  gives  the  foreign  trade  in  fish  of  difierent 
countries  : — 


Russia  :  Imports,  1874 — Herrings 

Exports — Caviare 
Norway  :  Exports,  1874 — 

Anchovies 

Dried  fish 

Fresh  fish 

Spring  herrings 

Other  herrings 

Klipfish  (dried  cod) 

Other  salted  fish    ... 

Lobsters 

Seal-skins 

Train  oil  ... 

Sweden  :  Imports,  1874 — 

Herrings 


barrels 
..     lbs. 


dunkers 

...     cwt. 

value  in  specie  dollar,  45.  6</. 

tenders  of  3  bushels 


...     cwt. 

tenders 

thousands 

...     No. 

tenders 


430,430 
106,989 

102,933 

383,830 

50,836 

17,784 

919,539 

599,576 

69,424 

749 

95,356 

103,365 


cubic  feet  1,163,560 


2  2         The  Comme7'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Spain  :  Imports,  1875 — 

Codfish   ...  ...  ...  ...  ...     tons       38.388 

Italy:  Imports,  1875 — 

Fish  of  all  sorts    ...  ...  ...  ...     tons       41,918 

United  States  :  Exports,  1875 — 

Fish,  dry,  pickled,  etc.         ...  ...  ...  value /601, 750 

France:  Produce  of  the  Fisheries  in  1876 —  ...  value  ;^3,56o,ooo 

Algeria:  Exports,  1876—  ...  ...  ...  value  ;4'240, 000 


PART    I. 

FOOD  PRODUCTS   OBTAINED  FROM 
THE  SEA. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  COD   FISHERY   IN   VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

The  cod  fishery  of  Scotland — The  Grand  Bank  fishery,  Newfoundland — 
Bultow  fishing  described — Preparing  the  fish — The  Norway  fishery — Lofo- 
den  fishery — Iceland — Consumption  in  the  French  colonies — Fishery  at 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  sea-fisheries,  whether 
regard  be  had  to  the  size  of  the  fish  or  the  number  taken, 
is 'that  for  the  cod.  This  fishery  is  carried  on  not  only 
around  the  shores  of  the  British  Islands,  but  is  prosecuted 
on  a  very  extensive  scale  on  the  shores  of  Newfound- 
land and  other  coasts  of  the  Atlantic,  in  Norway,  Iceland, 
and  other  quarters. 

The  cod  {Gadus  inorrhiid)  abounds  between  40°  and 
60°  N.  lat.  It  is  essentially  a  sea-fish,  and  is  never  met 
with  in  fresh  waters,  preferring  the  depths  of  the  sea,  which 
it  only  quits  to  spawn  on  the  coasts  or  the  banks. 

The  following  return  for  the  last  ten  years  shows  the 
average  take  of  codfish  in  Scotland,  at  least  as  far  as 
regards  the  quantity  cured  : — 

Dried.  Pickled, 
cwt.  barrels. 
10,819 

9,659 

10,319 

9,945 

9.283 


1867 

119,638^ 

1868 

113,831 

1869 

.     ...      135,585! 

1870 

145,2881 

I87I 

119,030 

26         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Dried.  Pickled, 

cwt.  barrels. 

1872  145.976I        ii,94t)j 

1873  160,716^        i-,38ij 

1S74     I43.466i    6,754 

1875     187,788^    8,5031 

1876    "1,457    6,109 

The  number  of  cod,  ling,  and  hake  taken  in  Scotland  in 
1876  was  3,454,198.  59,816  cwt.  of  dried  fish  were  ex- 
ported, being  rather  more  than  half  the  cure  ;  but  this  was 
22,000  cwt.  below  the  export  of  the  previous  year. 

The  cod  fishery  on  the  Irish  coast  commences  in  the 
lough  opposite  Moville,  about  the  ist  of  October,  and  ends 
about  the  ist  of  July.  They  move  out,  and  as  the  weather 
settles  in  spring,  the  fishermen  follow  them  eight  miles 
or  more,  and  finally  twenty  miles  out  to  Hamden  Bank. 

Newfoundland  may  be  said  to  have  a  monopoly  of  the 
cod  fishery,  and  the  market  is  every  day  increasing.  All 
tropical  people  like  codfish,  and  must  have  it,  and  there- 
fore, if  the  colonists  could  obtain  5,000,000  tons,  they 
could  not  supply  the  demand  in  future  ages. 

The  roe  of  a  cod  contains  2,000,000  eggs,  and  if  all 
these  came  to  maturity,  one  cod  would  fill  the  ocean  in 
a  few  years  ;  but  though  countless  millions  perish,  if  we 
do  not  violate  the  law  of  nature  by  destroying  the  mother 
or  breeding  fish,  we  cannot  lessen  the  quantity. 

The  Grand  Bank  appears  to  be  the  great  breeding 
ground  of  the  species,  and  the  finest  fish  is  caught  there. 
The  quantity  of  codfish  annually  taken  from  the  banks 
and  shores  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  coasts  of  Labrador, 
on  the  average  of  years,  may  be  stated  to  be  as  follows  : — 

Cwt. 

By  the  Americans         ...  ...  ...     1,500,000 

,,       Frencli  ...  ...  ...     1,000,000 

By  British  subjects        ...  ...  ...     1,500,000 


— worth  about  155.  or  i6s.  a  cwt. 


4,000,000 


The  Cod  Fishery  tit   Various  Countries.       27 

Taking  the  annual  catch  on  the  banks  and  along  the 
shores  at  2,750,000  cvvt.,  and  averaging  50  codfish  to  the 
cwt,  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  drawn  from  the  waters 
around  Newfoundland  137,500,000  codfish  in  a  year. 
Besides  the  fish,  the  oil  obtained  from  the  cod  forms  also 
a  considerable  item  in  the  business.  About  one  hogshead 
of  oil  is  produced  from  every  five  tons  of  fish. 

The  bultow  is  a  long  line,  with  hooks  fastened  along 
its  whole  length,  at  regular  distances,  by  shorter  and 
smaller  cords,  called  "snoods,"  which  are  six  feet  long, 
and  are  placed  on  the  long  line  12  feet  apart,  to 
prevent  the  hooks  becoming  entangled.  Near  the  hooks, 
these  shorter  lines,  or  snoods,  are  formed  of  separate 
threads,  loosely  fastened  together,  to  guard  against  the 
teeth  of  the  fish.  Buoys,  buoy-ropes,  and  anchors  or 
grapnels  are  fixed  to  each  end  of  the  line  ;  and  the  lines 
are  always  laid,  or  as  it  is  termed  "  shot,"  across  the  tide, 
for  if  the  tide  runs  upon  the  end  of  the  line  the  hooks, 
will  become  entangled,  and  the  fishing  will  be  wholly  lost. 
For  the  deep-sea  fishery  the  bultow  is  of  great  length. 

The  French  fishing  vessels,  after  anchoring  on  the 
bank,  in  about  45  fathoms  of  water,  run  out  about  100 
fathoms  of  cable,  and  prepare  to  catch  cod  with  two  lines, 
each  3000  fathoms  in  length.  The  snoods  are  arranged  as 
previously  described,  and  the  hooks  being  baited,  the  lines 
are  neatly  coiled  in  half-bushel  baskets,  clear  for  running 
out.  The  baskets  are  placed  in  two  strong-built  lugsail 
boats,  and  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  both  make 
sail  together,  at  right  angles  from  the  vessel  on  opposite 
sides.  When  the  lines  are  run  out  straight,  they  are  sunk 
to  within  two  feet  of  the  bottom.  At  daybreak  next 
morning,  the  boats  proceed  to  trip  the  sinkers  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  lines,  and  while  the  crew  of  each  boat  are 


28         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

hauling  in  line  and  unhooking  fish,  the  men  on  board 
heave  in  the  other  end  of  the  lines  with  a  winch.  In  this 
way  400  of  the  larger  bank  cod  are  commonly  taken  in 
a  night.  The  fish  are  cleaned  and  salted  on  board,  and 
stowed  in  the  hold  in  bulk  ;  the  livers  to  be  boiled  for  oil 
are  put  in  large  casks,  secured  on  deck. 

The  French  vessels  engaged  in  this  fishery  are  from 
1 50  to  300  tons  burthen  ;  they  arrive  on  the  Grand  Bank 
early  in  June,  and  on  the  average  complete  their  cargoes 
in  three  months. 

The  bultow  mode  of  fishing  is  wholly  used  by  the  French 
on  the  banks,  and  the  large  vessels  have  over  five  or  six 
miles  of  lines  and  6500  hooks  lying  at  the  bottom  at  a 
time.  The  shore  fishery  is  prosecuted  by  hook  and  line, 
either  in  whale-boats  or  flats. 

The  bultow  is  considered  very  injurious,  in  destroying 
what  the  fishermen  call  the  mother  fish,  that  is,  the  female 
fish  near  the  time  of  depositing  their  spawn,  when  they  are 
very  torpid  and  careless  in  seeking  food,  which  at  this 
period  they  do  always  on  the  bottom,  when  the  bultow 
hooks  are  laying  ready  baited  to  entrap  them.  It  is  but 
seldom  that  these  fish  are  caught  in  the  common  way,  with 
hook  and  line,  and  it  is  a  wise  provision  of  Providence  that 
the  cod  is  so  prolific,  otherwise  the  bultow  system  would 
almost  destroy  the  species.  Leuwenhock  counted  9,384,000 
eggs  of  spawn  in  a  cod  of  middling  size,  and  Hanmer 
3,686,750  in  one  that  weighed  12,540  grains. 

The  moment  a  fish  is  taken  off  the  hook  it  should  be 
bled,  This  may  be  done  by  the  person  who  is  employed 
in  taking  it  off  the  hook.  The  fish  must  then  be  headed, 
split  up,  and  gutted, — in  doing  which,  the  sound  should  be 
carefully  preserved  for  cure.  The  fish  should  then  have  the 
bone  removed,  care  being  taken  that  it  shall  be  cut  away 


The  Cod  Fishery  in   Various  CoiintjHes.       29 

to  within  20  or  22  joints  of  the  tail,  not  directly  across 
but  by  the  splitter  pointing  the  knife  towards  the  tail, 
and  cutting  the  bone  through  the  two  joints  at  once,  in 
a  sloping  direction,  so  as  to  leave  the  appearance  of  the 
figure  8.  This  looks  best,  and  it  has  this  advantage,  that 
the  fish  are  not  mangled,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  when  the 
bone  is  cut  square  through  one  joint.  A  slight  incision 
should  also  be  made  _along  all  the  adhering  part  of  the 
bone,  to  allow  any  remaining  blood  to  escape,  and  the 
splitter  should  then  drop  his  fish  into  clean  water.  The  fish 
should  be  then  thoroughly  washed  in  the  sea  from  all  im- 
purities ;  but  where  this  cannot  be  so  immediately  accom- 
plished, they  should  be  dropped  instantly  into  a  large  tub 
or  vat  full  of  sea  water,  where  they  should  be  carefully 
washed,  and  the  water  should  be  poured  out  of  it  when  it 
gets  foul,  and  fresh  water  supplied.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
remove  the  black  skin  that  adheres  to  the  laps  of  the  fish. 

If  these  operations  cannot  all  be  performed  on  board 
the  fishing  craft  immediately  after  capture,  the  fish,  upon 
being  taken  off"  the  hook  and  immediately  bled,  which  is 
absolutely  essential,  should  be  put  into  boxes,  or  some  con- 
venience, to  keep  them  from  exposure  to  the  air,  and  from 
being  trampled  on,  which  would  be  extremely  hurtful  to 
them.  But  it  may  be  again  repeated,  that  the  more  of  the 
above  operations  that  can  be  performed  immediately  after 
capture,  the  better.  If  the  salting  can  be  done  on  board 
the  craft,  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  advantage,  as  the  sooner 
the  fish  are  in  salt  after  they  are  taken  out  of  their  native 
element,  the  greater  is  the  chance  that  their  cure  will  be 
successful.  But,  whether  cured  at  sea  or  on  shore,  they 
ought  in  no  case  to  be  permitted  to  remain  a  longer  period 
before  being  laid  in  salt  than  48  hours. 

When  cured  on  shore,  the  cod  is  flung  from  the  fisher- 


30         The  Commercial  Pi'oducts  of  the  Sea, 

man's  boat  upon  the  rough  stage,  where  it  is  received  by  the 
"cut-throat,"  who,  with  a  sharp  knife,  lays  open  the  fish  across 
the  throat  and  down  the  belly,  and  passes  it  to  the  header. 
This  operator  proceeds  to  extract  the  liver,  which  is  dropped 
into  a  vessel  by  his  side,  to  be  converted  into  cod-liver  oil. 
He  then  extracts  the  entrails  and  wrenches  off  the  head, 
and  throws  these  into  another  receptacle,  to  be  preserved  for 
the  farmer,  to  mix  with  bog  and  earth,  thus  forming  a  most 
fertilizing  compost  for  his  fields.  The  tongues,  however, 
are  taken  out,  and  also  the  sounds,  and  these,  fresh  or 
pickled,  are  an  excellent  article  of  food.  The  fish  is  then 
passed  to  the  splitter,  who,  by  a  dexterous  movement,  cuts 
out  the  backbone  nearly  to  the  tail,  and  thus  lays  the  fish 
entirely  open,  and  capable  of  being  laid  flat  on  its  back. 
This  is  the  nicest  part  of  the  operation,  and  the  splitter 
always  commands  higher  wages  than  the  rest  of  the  opera- 
tors. The  Salter  next  takes  the  fish  and  washes  it  well 
from  all  particles  of  blood,  salts  it,  and  places  it  in  piles  to 
drain.  After  laying  the  proper  length  of  time  it  is  washed, 
and  spread  to  dry  on  the  "  flake,"  which  is  formed  of  spruce 
boughs,  supported  by  a  framework  resting  on  upright  poles. 
Here  the  cod  are  spread  out  individually  to  bleach  by  ex- 
posure to  sun  and  air,  and  during  this  process  require  con- 
stant attention.  At  night,  or  on  the  approach  of  rain,  they 
are  made  up  into  little  round  heaps,  with  the  skin  outward, 
in  which  state  they  look  very  much  like  small  haycocks. 
When  the  "  bloom,"  or  whitish  appearance,  which  for  a  time 
they  assume,  comes  out  on  the  dried  fish,  the  process  is 
finished,  and  then  they  are  quite  ready  for  storing.  On 
being  conveyed  to  the  premises  of  the  exporting  merchant^ 
they  are  first  "  culled,"  or  assorted,  into  four  different  kinds, 
known  as  "  Merchantable,"  "  Madeira,"  "  West  India,"  and 
"  Dun,"  or  broken  fish.     The  first  is  the  best  quality,  the 


The  Cod  Fishery  in    Various  Countries.       31 

second  a  grade  lower,  the  third  is  intended  for  the  stomachs 
of  negroes,  and  the  fourth,  which  is  incapable  of  keeping,  is 
used  at  home. 

Dun  fish  are  prepared  in  the  following  manner  : — ■ 
They  are  caught  early  in  spring,  and  often  in  February. 
The  cod  are  taken  in  deep  water,  split,  and  slack  salted  ; 
then  laid  on  a  pile  for  two  or  three  months  in  a  dark 
store,  covered  for  the  greatest  part  of  the  time  with  salt 
hay,  or  grass,  and  pressed  with  some  weight.  In  April  or 
May  they  are  opened  and  piled  again  as  close  as  possible 
in  the  same  dark  store  till  July  or  August,  when  they  are 
fit  for  use. 

The  cod  sent  to  hot  countries  are  packed  by  screw 
power  into  small  casks  called  "  drums  ; "  those  which  go  to 
the  Mediterranean  are  usually  exported  in  bulk.  Large 
quantities  of  dried  codfish  are  shipped  to  Brazil,  and  there 
is  hardly  an  inhabited  corner  of  that  vast  empire  where  the 
Newfoundland  cod  is  not  to  be  found,  being  carried  on  the 
backs  of  mules  from  the  seacoast  into  the  most  distant 
provinces  of  the  interior.  The  negroes  of  the  West  Indies 
welcome  it  as  a  grateful  addition  to  their  vegetable  diet. 
To  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  it  finds  its  way;  Italians, 
Greeks,  and  Sicilians  equally  relishing  the  produce  of  the 
sea  harvest.  The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  are  our  best 
customers,  and  all  over  the  sunny  peninsula  the  "  bucalo  " 
is  a  standing  dish.  In  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth  the 
people  seem  to  have  a  special  liking  for  the  dried  and 
salted  cod,  and  to  them  it  is  an  almost  indispensable  article 
of  food. 

The  air  bladder,  or  as  it  is  called,  cod's  sound,  which 
consists  almost  entirely  of  pure  gelatine,  sells  at  a  high  rate 
in  any  market  into  which  it  has  been  introduced.  Cod's 
tongues  and  sounds  form,  even  at  present,  a  considerable 


32         The  Commercial  Pi'oducts  of  the  Sea. 

export  from  the  ports  of  the  States  and  the  British-American 
colonies  on  the  Atlantic. 

Norway  possesses  a  long  and  much-indented  coast, 
which  furnishes  a  large  part  of  the  fish  consumed  in 
England.  The  most  valuable  Norwegian  fisheries  are  in 
the  extreme  north,  near  the  Lofoden  Islands,  and  within 
the  Arctic  circle.  The  great  fisheries,  and  those  of  most 
interest  to  all  Englishmen,  are  the  deep-sea  fisheries  for  cod 
and  herrings,  which  constitute  the  most  important  branch 
of  industry  practised  in  Norway.  The  annual  produce  oi 
these  amounts  to  a  million  of  money,  and  they  give  employ- 
ment to  from  20,000  to  30,000  men,  and  from  5000  to  6000 
vessels.  The  cod  are  caught  in  two  ways,  with  nets,  in  the 
English  fashion,  and  with  lines.  The  lines,  or  rather  cables, 
are  1000  fathoms  long,  and  are  supported  in  each  case  by  a 
buoy,  and  secured  by  anchors  to  prevent  their  drifting. 
Each  line  is  furnished  with  1200  hooks,  at  distances  of  five 
feet  from  each  other,  each  hook  being  on  a  separate  hook- 
line  of  about  a  fathom  in  length.  The  lines  are  set  at 
night  and  taken  up  in  the  morning.  The  fish  are  not 
salted,  but  are  merely  gutted  and  hung  up  in  pairs  upon 
poles,  to  be  dried  in  the  wind,  and  when  thus  cured  they 
are  exported  in  large  quantities,  under  the  name  of  round 
or  stock-fish.     The  great  cod  fishery  ends  in  April. 

The  number  of  cod  caught  in  1869  amounted  to 
20,700,000,  of  which  about  12,000,000  were  salted  and  pre- 
pared as  klipfish  (baccalau),  and  about  7,800,000  were 
hung  up  to  dry  as  round-fish  (stock-fish) ;  the  remainder, 
about  900,000,  were  cured  for  home  consumption. 

The  produce  of  the  fishery  in  1870  consisted  01 
16,456,000  fish,  equal  to  about  8800  tons  when  dried. 
Besides  this,  there  were  secured  21,500  barrels  of  cod  oil, 
and  6000  barrels  of  cod  roe. 


The  Cod  Fishery  in   Vai'ioiis  Countries.       2)Z 

The  fishermen  pay  great  attention  to  the  curing.  The 
fish  is  neatly  packed  in  boxes  with  the  fins  trimmed  off. 

The  extensive  fishing  bank  which  is  periodically  visited 
by  the  cod,  stretches  from  Rost,  a  low  group  of  islands 
forming  the  south-westernmost  range  of  the  Lofoden  chain 
of  islands,  up  to  the  very  head  of  the  West  Fiord ;  a  distance 
of  about  70  English  miles. 

The  number  of  boats_  engaged  is  nearly  6000,  of  which 
one-fifth  have  nets,  and  the  remainder  lines  and  deep-sea 
lines.  The  latter  are  of  various  lengths,  supported  on  the 
surface  by  floats,  with  a  buoy  at  each  end.  From  this  float- 
ing line,  numerous  baited  lines  are  suspended  at  regular 
distances.  There  are  also  about  400  vessels  of  various 
kinds  usually  assembled,  partly  for  fishing,  but  chiefly  for 
purchasing  fish  as  they  are  brought  in. 

The  boats  engaged  in  fishing  with  nets  are  from  36 
to  40  feet  long,  and  nine  to  ten  feet  wide,  with  a  depth 
of  not  more  than  three  feet.  They  are  provided  with 
only  a  single  mast,  about  24  feet  high,  carrying  one  large 
square  sail.  But  each  boat  has  as  well  10  or  12  oars,  by 
means  of  which  her  sturdy  crew  can  propel  her  against  an 
adverse  wind.  For  fishing  with  lines,  smaller  ships,  mostly 
boats,  are  used.  The  crew  usually  consist  of  five  men  and 
a  boy. 

In  the  month  of  December,  the  first  shoals  of  cod 
usually  begin  to  appear  on  the  western  banks  of  the  islands, 
arriving  from  the  open  sea.  These  are  soon  followed  by 
great  masses  of  fish.  But  as  these  western  outside  shores 
are  shallow,  the  ports  few,  and  the  whole  coast  exposed 
to  the  frequent  fury  of  the  North  Sea,  not  more  than  from 
600  to  800  boats  venture  on  the  hazards  of  this  early  fish- 
ing, and  the  take  seldom  exceeds  5,000,000  or  6,000,000 
of  fish. 


34         Tlie  Co7nmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

In  the  mean  time  the  inhabitants  of  the  inner  or  eastern 
side,  protected  from  northerly  winds,  and  favoured  with 
many  bays  of  refuge,  examine  their  shores  day  by  day  with 
baited  hooks,  to  discover  if  the  precursors  of  the  dense 
shoals  of  cod  have  yet  appeared  in  the  West  Fiord,  and 
great  is  the  public  exultation  when  the  joyful  news  of  their 
arrival  is  announced.  This  important  event  takes  place 
generally  in  the  latter  end  of  December,  but  not  before  the 
middle  of  January  do  the  fish  arrive  in  great  masses. 

Codfish  are  taken  by  the  Lofoden  fishermen  by  three 
methods: — (i)  with  hand  lines  ;  (2)  with  set  lines;  and 
(3)  with  nets. 

Hand  lines  requiring  little  capital  and  producing  small 
results,  are  only  employed  by  the  poorest  fishermen.  These 
are  satisfied  with  50  fish  to  each  man  per  day,  although 
occasionally  they  will  capture  double  that  number.  They 
bait  with  herrings,  salt  or  fresh,  and  when  these  are  all 
gone,  with  the  roe  of  the  fish  they  have  caught.  Sometimes, 
when  the  shoals  of  cod  are  very  thick  and  dense,  the  men 
adopt  another  method  also,  with  a  single  line  requiring  no 
bait.  Providing  themselves  with  a  long  cord,  armed  with  a 
large  and  sharp  hook  at  its  extremity,  they  sink  it  into  the 
swarming  masses  below,  having  first  attached  to  it,  a  couple 
of  feet  above  the  hook,  small  fishes  of  tin,  for  the  purpose  of 
attracting  the  cod  by  their  glitter.  The  fishermen  then  jerk 
the  hook  sharply  upwards,  occasionally  securing  a  curious 
fish,  though  cruelly  wounding  many  others  that  are  not 
taken. 

Set-line  fishing  requires  larger  apparatus :  a  boat,  a 
crew,  and  from  500  to  3000  hooks  baited  at  once.  The 
hooks  are  attached  to  fine  snoods  of  hemp  or  cotton,  which 
in  their  turn  are  suspended  on  long  lines  ;  each  boat  puts 
out  at  least  24  of  these  lines,  every  line  carrying  more  than 


The  Cod  Fishery  in    Various  Countries.       35 

100  hooks.  Set-line  fishing  usually  begins  in  the  after- 
noon, but  in  any  case  only  at  the  time  and  in  the  place 
prescribed  by  the  officers  appointed  at  each  station  for  the 
purpose.  The  baited  hooks  are  generally  suspended  near 
the  bottom,  but  if  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  fish 
have  risen,  as  they  sometimes  will,  the  lines  are  shortened 
and  the  bait  raised  to  the  required  height  by  means  of 
glass  floats.  They  are  then  left  all  night.  On  the  follow- 
ing morning  the  lines  are  taken  in,  and  the  crews  are  well 
content  with  an  average  take  of  50  to  60  fish  daily  on  each 
set  of  120  hooks. 

Net  fishing  requires  larger  capital,  and  is  only  followed 
by  the  more  wealthy  fishermen,  who  provide  both  nets  and 
lines,  to  be  used  according  to  circumstances. 

When  the  fish  are  fat,  and  especially  during  the  spawning 
season,  they  will  hardly  take  any  notice  of  the  bait  ;  then 
is  the  time  the  nets  are  used.  Ev^ery  boat  carries  at  least 
60  nets  of  from  10  to  20  fathoms  deep.  These  nets  are 
suspended  in  the  water  from  floats  of  wood,  cork,  or  glass. 
Hollow  glass  floats  are  preferred,  and  are  almost  exclusively 
used  at  Lofoden.  Sixteen  to  20  nets  bound  together  in 
one  length  are  set  out  in  the  afternoon,  and,  weather  per- 
mitting, are  taken  up  the  following  morning.  A  catch  of 
from  500  to  600  cod  is  considered  satisfactory  ;  but  if  this 
number  is  largely  exceeded,  part  are  left  in  the  nets  till  the 
afternoon,  because  the  boats  could  not  safely  carry  so  heavy 
a  freight,  together  with  the  crew  and  wet  nets.  The  total 
take  of  cod  by  these  various  methods  has  ranged  during 
the  last  few  years  from  15,000,000  to  25,000,000  of  fish  per 
annum. 

Although  the  cod  fisheries  of  Lofoden  are  the  largest 
and  most  renowned,  Norway  has  many  others  of  great 
value  along  her  far-stretchino-  sea-board. 


36         The  Comineixial  P^'-oduds  of  the  Sea. 

The  produce  of  the  Lofoden  fisheries  in  1871  was 
of  khpfish  750,000  vogs,  and  of  round-fish  340,000  vogs — 
the  vog  being  about  44  lbs.  This  was  equal  to  nearly 
24,000  tons  of  codfish.  The  above  take  of  fish  yielded 
31,000  barrels  of  oil,  and  25,000  barrels  of  roes.  On  an 
average  about  400  cod  yield  a  barrel  of  liver,  varying  in 
price  from  i^i  to  ^i  6s.  8d. 

It  appears  that  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  fish, 
especially  cod,  off  the  coast  of  Iceland,  and  that  this  fish  is 
a  set-off  for  the  scanty  agriculture  of  the  island.  The  cod 
remain  during  winter  near  the  coast,  and  the  fishing  com- 
mences during  the  spring ;  in  summer,  the  fish  are  further 
out  in  deep  water.  Owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  same  persons  attend  to  agriculture  and  to  fishing. 
Taking  the  whole  coast  collectively,  the  winter  and  spring 
fishings  give  large  fat  cod,  which  are  sold  at  the  trading 
ports,  and  afterwards  prepared  for  export ;  whereas  the 
summer  fishings  usually  yield  small  cod,  haddock,  cole-fish, 
and  halibut,  which  are  sorted  and  smoked  for  home  con- 
sumption. 

The  Icelanders  chiefly  fish  from  open  boats — seldom 
from  decked  ones.  Their  boats  so  vary  in  size  as  to  range 
from  two  to  12  oars,  with  as  many  men  as  oars,  and 
one  to  act  as  steersman.  The  boats  have  all  projecting 
prows,  are  very  easily  rowed,  and  light  in  construction. 
As  a  rule  they  carry  only  one  lugsail.  The  larger  boats 
—  from  six  to  12  oars  —  are  employed  in  the  deeper 
fishings,  often  far  out  at  sea.  The  fishing  is  effected  by 
means  of  small  drift-nets,  deep-sea  lines,  hand  lines,  or  long 
lines,  according  to  the  depth  of  water  and  the  kind  of  fish. 
Fishing  with  the  drift-net  generally  ceases  about  the  middle 
of  April,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  deep-sea  or  hand  lines. 
The  hooks  used  are  generally  the  same  as  the  French,  but 


The  Cod  Fishery  m   Various  Countries.       2)7 

some  of  the  fishermen  use  the  old  Iceland  hook,  which 
is  nearly  20  inches  long.  Fishing  with  the  ordinary 
lines  is  carried  on  when  the  other  two  methods  are  no 
longer  productive,  and  takes  place  all  round  the  island. 
From  one  to  four  lengths  of  strong,  thick  line,  each  length 
measuring  60  fathoms,  are  spliced  together,  and  vertical 
or  hanging  lines  six  feet  in  length  are  spliced  into  this  at  a 
distance  of  six  or  eight  feet  apart;  a  hook  baited  with 
snails  or  mussels  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  each  hanging 
line.  The  hooks  used  are  the  ordinary  tinned  English 
No.  5.  A  boat  carries  from  20  to  40  such  lines,  which 
are  sunk  to  the  bottom  by  means  of  stone  weights ;  their 
position  is  indicated  by  buoy-ropes  kept  up  by  small 
floating  barrels  marked  with  the  owner's  name.  The  lines 
are  placed  across  the  entrance  of  bays  and  rivers,  or  some- 
times at  the  outside  of  them,  and  are  taken  up  twice  or 
thrice  a  day,  according  as  the  weather  permits.  As  many 
as  80  of  these  long-line  boats  may  sometimes  be  seen 
collected  together,  busy  fishing  from  three  to  four  miles  ofif 
the  coast. 

Line  fishing  is  conducted  in  Iceland  on  a  much  more 
limited  scale  than  at  Newfoundland,  in  relation  both  to 
the  size  of  the  boats  and  the  length  of  the  lines.  This 
arises,  not  from  the  scarcity  of  the  fish,  but  from  the 
poverty  of  the  people,  which  prevents  them  from  obtaining 
the  requisites  necessary  for  larger  operations.  The  fish 
are  packed  for  export  sale  in  many  ways.  In  order  to 
obtain  what  are  called  ivhite  fish,  the  fish  are  opened, 
gutted,  cleansed,  and  partially  boned,  then  washed  in  sea 
water  and  placed  in  salt.  After  three  or  four  days'  salting 
they  are  washed  in  sea  water  and  laid  out  on  the  rock  to 
dry  ;  they  are  then  ready  to  be  packed  in  warehouses  for 
shipment  on  suitable  opportunity.     This  is,  of  course,  dried 


38         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

salt  cod.  Another  fish  for  home  consumption  is  the  hcinge 
fish,  in  which  the  cod  are  split  up  along  the  back  and  hung 
up  unsalted  to  dry  in  sheds  with  open  latticed  sides.  This 
second  kind  is  more  shrivelled  up  in  appearance  than  the 
first,  and  is  eaten  uncooked  by  the  Icelanders,  who  like- 
wise dry  and  eat  the  refijse  heads. 

Somehow  or  other  we  have  let  the  French  forestall  us  in 
that  quarter.    The  French  fishermen  catch  more  in  the  Ice- 
land seas  than  the  Icelanders  themselves,  and  carry  away 
to  France  as  much  cod  as  is  worth  6,725,000  francs  a  year 
(i^270,ooo).     The  abundance  of  fish  in  the  Iceland  seas  at- 
tracted fishermen  from  many  other  countries ;  but,  for  some 
reason  not  easily  to  be  explained,  the  French  are  now  the 
only  foreigners  who  carry  on  the  fishing  largely.    Some  few 
Belgians  are  occasionally  seen,  and  a  few  Scotch  fishermen 
from  the  Shetlands,  but  their  number  is  insignificant.     The 
Danish  Government,  to  which  Iceland  belongs,  lays  down 
certain  limits  within  which  foreign  fishing-boats  may  not 
approach   the   shore ;    but   collisions   unfortunately   occur 
between  those  who  cany  on  the  line  fishing,  because  the 
French,  when  driven  by  the  weather  or  by  the  movements 
of  the  shoal,  come  within  the  prohibited  limits,  then  en- 
tanglements  of  gear   result,  followed   by   quarrels.      The 
French  fishermen  usually  have  a  fleet  of  250  vessels  there 
in  the  season,  averaging  90  tons,  and  worked  by  4400  men. 
These    vessels    are     mostly    schooner-rigged.      Although 
the  native  boats  are  nearly  ten  times  as  numerous,  and 
the  crews  twice  as  many,  the  French  catch  more  cod  than 
the   Icelanders,  for  the  majority  of  the  native  craft  are, 
as  we  have  said,  mere  small  open  boats.     The  quantity 
caught  altogether  must  be  very  large,  for  the  Icelanders 
alone  export  5,000,000  lbs.  to  7,000,000 lbs.  annually.     The 
average  number  of  French  vessels  employed   in  the  cod 


The  Cod  Fishery  in   Various  Countries.         39 

fishery  in  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  in  the  three  years 
ending  with  i860  was  500,  of  about  65,000  tons,  and  em- 
ploying 14,000  to  15,000  men. 

The  produce  imported  into  France  in  i860,  which  was  a 
fair  average  of  the  fiv^e  years  previous,  was  as  follows  : — 


Kilogrammes. 

Wet  cod  ... 

...    19,780,556 

Dry  cod  ... 

...      7,370.659 

Cod  oil    ...             .:. 

...      2,050,846 

,,      not  purified 

284,649 

Ccd  roes 

72,489 

Other  produce — sounds, 

etc. 

870,655 

The  codfish  re-exported  to  the  various  French  colonies 
to  Italy,  and  the  Barbary  States,  varies  from  3,000,000  to 
9,000,000  kilogrammes. 

The  average  catch  of  cod  in  the  French  colonies  of  St. 
Pierre  and  Miquelon,  according  to  the  official  returns,  was 
for  the  five  years  ending  1871  : — 

Kilogrammes. 
Dried  cod  ...  ...  ...     7,163,965 

Salted  cod  ...  ,..  ...     8,261,121 


15,425,086 
There   were    employed    in    the  fishery,  directly  or  in- 
directly, 194  vessels,  of  30,561   tons,  employing  3439  men. 
The  number  of  boats  was  Gy^^.  and  the  number  of  fishermen 

5773- 

The  number  of  French  vessels  employed  in  1873  in 
the  cod  fisheries  was — in  Newfoundland  190,  of  23,035  tons, 
and  in  Iceland  230  of  19,585  tons. 

The  average  annual  produce  of  the  French  cod  fishery 
in  the  five  years  ending  1874  was  : — 

Kilogrammes. 
Dry  codfish  ...  ...  ...     6,419,538 

Green  codfish         ...  ...  ...   10,985,127 

Cod  oil   ...  ...  ...  ...        449,102 

,,    sounds  ...  ...  ...        417,223 

„    roes...  ...  ...  ...        113,41s 


40         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


The  kilogramme  is  equal  to  2\  lbs. 

The  number  of  ships  employed  at  St.  Pierre  and 
Miquelon  in  the  cod  fishery  is  "jG,  and  of  boats  590  ;  the 
aggregate  tonnage,  12,386.  The  number  of  fishermen 
employed  in  them  is  5335.  These  figures  are  the  average 
of  the  five  years  ending  1874. 

The  imports  of  cod  into  the  French  colonies  in  1874 
were  as  follows  : — 

Kilogrammes. 
Martinique  ...  ...  ...     4,586,402 


Guadaloupe 
French  Guiana 
Senegal ... 
Reunion 


2,621,426 

106,532 

4,069 

832,879 


8,151,308 

This  shows  a  declining  consumption,  judging  by  the 
average  imports  for  the  undermentioned  years  in  the  five 
colonies : — 

Kilogrammes. 
9,120,157 


1S29-1S3I 
1832-1836 
1837-1851 
1S52-1873 


9,613,200 

18,031,078 

9.352,736 


Coal-fish. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   HERRING   FISHERY. 

The  British  herring  fishery — The  Scotch  fishery  and  take  of  fish — Mode  of 
curing — Statistics  of  export — Definition  of  official  brands — Statistics  of 
the  Norfolk  fishery — Description  of  drift  and  other  nets — Kippered 
herrings — The  Dutch  fishery — The  French  fishery — The  Norway  fishery — 
The  North  American  fishery. 

Of  almost  equal  importance  to  that  of  the  cod  is  the 
herring  fishery,  which  supports  and  gives  employment  to 
many  thousand  of  persons.  Herrings  {Chipca  Jiarcugus), 
when  in  prime  condition,  form  a  cheap,  delicate,  and 
nutritious  article  of  food,  and  when  promptly  and  efficiently 
cured,  become  valuable  as  provision.  But  their  value  in 
this  respect  must  necessarily  depend  entirely  on  the  quality 
of  the  fish  when  caught,  and  on  the  degree  of  promptitude 
and  care  which  may  be  exercised  in  curing  them. 

The  common  herring,  which  is  so  abundant  in  all 
markets,  is  taken  generally  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  from 
the  extremity  of  Scandinavia  as  far  as  Normandy,  and 
sometimes  even  lower  down,  but  never  so  low  as  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Russians,  Danes,  Germans, 
Dutch,  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  French,  all  take  part  in 
the  herring  fishery.  The  number  of  men  employed  in 
Great  Britain  is  about  100,000,  and  that  of  vessels  3000 — 


42  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

not  counting  the  number  of  small  boats.  Herrings  breed 
with  remarkable  rapidity.  The  females  are  in  number  up- 
wards of  two-thirds  more  than  the  males,  and  some  of  them 
contain  as  many  as  60,000  eggs.  The  abundance  of  herrings 
is  such  that  it  is  not  diminished  either  by  the  fishing  or  by 
the  destruction  committed  by  large  fish  and  by  innumerable 
birds.  The  herrings  move  in  shoals,  which  are  sometimes 
from  eight  to  ten  miles  long  by  two  to  four  wide,  and  of 
unknown  depth.  These  immense  masses,  which  advance 
very  rapidly,  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  birds 
flying  above  them,  and  by  the  agitation  of  the  sea,  and  at 
night  the  place  which  they  occupy  is  phosphorescent.  In 
1 78 1  herrings  came  in  such  large  quantities  to  Buscoe,  on 
the  coast  of  Gottenburg,  that  they  were  caught  by  the 
hand.  In  1784  ^^"56,000  worth  of  herrings  were  caught  in 
the  space  of  a  fortnight  in  Loch  Urn.  In  1773  there  was 
such  an  invasion  of  herrings  in  Loch  Torridon,  that  150 
fishing-boats  caught  from  1 2  to  20  casks  each  in  the  space 
of  a  single  night.  In  some  cases  50,000  herrings  have  been 
caught  by  a  single  cast  of  the  nets,  and  it  is  also  said  that 
the  fishermen  of  Dunkirk,  Calais,  Dieppe,  and  Boulogne 
have  frequently  taken  280,000  herrings  in  a  night.  Not 
very  long  ago  the  fishermen  of  one  English  town,  Lowes- 
toft, caught  in  two  days  22,000,000  herrings  !  And  Hhis  at 
only  one  of  a  hundred  such  places.  At  the  retail  price 
of  a  penny  each,  this  two  days'  catch  would  come  to 
^^"91,666;  but  it  was  so  beyond  all  the  mercantile  force  or 
curing-power  of  the  place,  that  tons  had  to  be  sold  for 
manure. 

But  few  people  know  the  great  value  of  our  legitimate 
fishing  ground  at  home.  At  the  same  season  when  the 
pilchards  arrive  from  the  south,  and  swarm  on  the  coast  of 
Cornwall,  herrings  in  myriads   arrive  from  the  north  and 


The  He7'ring  Fishery.  43 

fill  the  bays  and  friths  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland. 
During  the  herring  season  there  are  upwards  of  15,000 
fishing-boats,  manned  by  about  62,000  men,  employed  on 
the  coast  of  Scotland  every  year,  and  who  land  their  fish, 
when  they  are  successfully  cured,  barrelled,  and  the  bulk  of 
them  is  sent  away  to  foreign  countries.  These  delicious 
fish,  although  caught,  cured,  and  sold  by  Presbyterian 
fishermen,  neither  pious  -Neapolitan,  Portuguese,  nor  even 
the  good  Pope  himself,  ever  hesitates  to  enjoy  the  relish 
of  a  heretical  pilchard  or  herring. 

The  Herring  FisJiery  of  Scotland. — Mr.  Bremner,  in  his 
work  on  "The  Industries  of  Scotland,"  gives  an  interesting 
description  of  the    outfit  and  results  : — 

"  During  the  fishing  season  Wick  presents  one  of  the 
most  interesting  scenes  to  be  witnessed  in  the  whole  range 
of  industry.  In  the  course  of  the  afternoon  the  crews  of 
the  boats  moored  in  the  harbours  or  anchored  in  the  bay 
prepare  to  start  for  the  night's  fishing.  The  nets  are  got 
on  board,  the  masts  are  hoisted,  the  sails  set,  and  soon  the 
bay  becomes  shrouded  in  dark-brown  canvas.  With  a 
breeze  from  the  south-east,  the  departure  of  the  boats  is  a 
splendid  sight,  for  then  they  have  to  tack  out ;  and  the 
spectators  are  favoured  by  beholding  a  regatta  on  a  grander 
scale  than  any  to  be  witnessed  elsewhere.  The  movement 
seaward  is  simultaneous  along  the  coast,  and  by  the  time 
the  last  of  the  fleet  gets  outside  the  heads  of  Wick  Bay,  a 
dark  line  of  boats  extends  continuously  from  Duncansby 
Head  to  the  head  of  Clyth,  a  stretch  of  a  dozen  miles. 
Generally  those  in  the  boats  have  no  fixed  intention  as  to 
what  spot  they  shall  select  for  casting  out  their  nets,  and 
taking  their  draw  from  Neptune's  lottery.  If  a  good  haul 
was  previously  got  at  a  certain  part,  those  who  get  it 
endeavour  to  return  to  that  part ;    but  in  most  cases  the 


44         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

boats  which  were  successful  on  the  previous  night  are 
watched  and  followed,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is 
an  exceedingly  rare  thing  for  a  boat  to  have  two  excep- 
tionally successful  nights  following  each  other. 

"  Having  chosen  their  water,  the  crew  of  each  boat 
begin  to  '  shoot '  their  nets,  which,  while  being  '  laid  '  in 
their  boats,  were  united  in  a  continuous  train  or  drift,  by 
knotting  together  the  '  back-ropes.'  Each  boat  has  a  train 
of  nets  about  half  a  mile  in  length  and  lo  yards  in  depth. 
By  corks  attached  at  the  top  and  weights  at  the  bottom, 
the  nets  are  made  to  float  perpendicularly  in  the  water. 
This  wall  of  netting  is  suspended  from  buoys  which  allow 
it  to  sink  20  or  30  feet  below  the  surface.  The  nets  are  put 
into  the  sea  immediately  after  sunset,  and  most  of  the 
crew  then  endeavour  to  snatch  '  40  winks  '  of  sleep.  In  the 
course  of  an  hour  or  two  some  of  the  nets  are  hauled  up 
and  examined  to  see  whether  the  fish  have  been  '  striking.' 
If  there  should  be  good  signs  of  fish  in  the  locality,  the 
nets  are  allowed  to  lie  for  some  time.  The  herrings  are 
caught  by  getting  fixed  in  the  meshes  while  trying  to  pass 
through.  The  captain  decides  the  proper  time  for  taking 
in  the  nets,  and  when  he  gives  the  word,  all  hands  fall  to 
work.  As  the  nets  are  got  on  board,  the  fish  are  shaken 
out  of  them  and  fall  into  the  hold,  where,  after  a  gasp  or 
two,  they  expire.  If  the  night's  labour  has  yielded  20  or 
30  barrels  of  fish,  the  men  think  themselves  fortunate  ;  but 
it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  a  boat  to  bring  ashore  80  and 
even  100  *  crans,'  or  barrels. 

"  The  return  of  the  boats  in  the  morning  is  an  event  of 
much  more  importance  and  interest  to  people  on  shore,  and 
from  an  early  hour  anxious  inquiries  are  made  respecting 
the  fortunes  of  the  night,  while  those  who  have  leisure  go 
to  make  observations   from  the  piers  and  cliffs.     As  the 


The  Herring  Fishery.  45 

boats  crowd  into  the  harbours,  an  opportunity  is  afforded 
for  judging  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  fishermen's  fortunes. 
A  score  or  two  of  boats  sail  swiftly  in,  with  barely  as  many 
fish  on  board  as  will  suffice  for  the  breakfasts  of  the  crews  ; 
then,  at  a  toilsome  pace,  come  one  or  two  boats  filled  to  the 
thwarts  with  herrings.  In  one  case,  the  night's  labour  of 
six  men,  and  the  use  and  risk  of  property  worth  from  £100 
to  ^200,  has  produced^  a  return  of  about  6d. ;  in  another, 
of  ^60  or  ^80.  The  average  catch  at  Wick  in  1868  was  41  f 
crans,  drawn  from  returns  of  individual  boats  which  ranged 
from  one  to  upwards  ot  200  crans,  or  barrels. 

"  When  all  the  boats  are  in,  the  harbours  are  quite 
crowded  ;  but,  by  mutual  arrangement,  the  boats  having 
large  quantities  of  fish  to  land  are  allowed  to  get  near  the 
quays.  "  The  fish  are  shovelled  into  wicker  baskets,  and  then 
carried  to  the '  station,'  where  they  are  measured  and  emptied 
into  the  '  boxes,'  or  enclosures  of  wood  from  20  to  30  feet 
square,  the  sides  of  which  are  about  30  inches  in  height.  As 
soon  as  a  convenient  quantity  of  fish  has  been  deposited  in 
the  box,  a  troop  of  women,  arrayed  in  canvas  and  oil-cloth, 
approach,  and  the  '  gutting '  and  '  packing '  processes  begin. 
The  gutters,  each  armed  with  a  small  knife,  surround  the 
box,  and,  taking  a  herring  up  in  the  left  hand,  operate  upon 
it  with  the  knife  held  in  the  right  hand.  The  rapidity  of 
their  movements  is  surprising,  a  good  worker  being  able  to 
dispose  of  1000  fish  in  an  hour.  As  the  fish  are  gutted, 
they  are  dropped  into  baskets  and  handed  over  to  the 
'  packers,'  who  '  rouse  '  them  with  salt  in  a  large  tub,  and 
then  arrange  them  in  layers  in  the  barrels.  A  free  use 
of  salt  is  made,  the  herrings  being  first  coated  with  it 
separately  in  the  rousing  process,  and  the  layers  in  the 
barrels  afterwards  thickly  overlaid  with  it.  The  barrels  are 
temporarily   covered    and    allowed    to    stand  for  10  days, 


46         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

during  which  time  the  fish  settle  down  considerably. 
Additional  fish  are  then  put  in,  until  the  barrels  are  quite 
lull.  After  being  examined  and  approved  by  an  officer  of 
the  Fishery  Board,  the  barrels  receive  the  official  brand, 
which  is  accepted  in  the  market  as  a  guarantee  that  the 
fish  are  of  a  certain  standard  of  quality.  A  large  number 
of  coopers  and  labourers  are  engaged  in  preparing  and 
heading  up  the  barrels,  and  removing  them  from  one  place 
to  another." 

At  almost  all  the  stations  in  Scotland  the  disposition  of 
the  fishermen  for  some  years  past  has  been  to  substitute 
first-class  boats  for  the  second  class,  and  even  to  employ 
first-class  boats  at  the  line  or  white  fishery,  where  boats  of 
the  second  class  were  formerly  used. 

An  enterprising  curer  at  Wick  has  lately  made  trial  of 
sending  carrier  pigeons  to  sea  with  boats  which  fish  at  a 
large  offing.  The  pigeons  were  the  means  of  supplying 
intelligence  of  the  results  of  the  night's  fishing  before  the 
boats  arrived,  so  that  preparations  could  be  made  ac- 
cordingly, and  they  also  conveyed  instruction  when  a 
steam-tug  or  other  assistance  was  required.  Another  ex- 
periment made  with  success  at  Wick  was  the  employment 
of  a  traction  engine  to  haul  up  the  boats  for  the  winter, 
instead  of  gangs  of  men,  and  the  work  was  found  to  be 
done  cheaper. 

The  take  of  herrings  in  the  Scotch  fisheries  has  been 
on  the  whole  large  in  the  past  ten  years : — 


Total  cured. 

Exported. 

Barrels. 

Barrels. 

1867 

825,589 

478,704i 

1868 

651,433! 

...         3(^8,7441 

1869 

675,143 

...        38i,333J 

1870 

833,160^ 

530,558 

r87i 

825,475!           ... 

551,605! 

1872 

773.859i 

549,631 

llie  Herring  Fishery.  47 


Total  cured. 

Exported. 

Barrels. 

Barrels. 

1873     ... 

939,233^ 

668,008 

1874 

1,000,561 

737.3I4I 

IS75     ... 

942,980 

660,970^ 

1876 

598,197^ 

400, 423  i 

About  one  half  of  the  total  number  cured  are  "  officially 
branded  "  by  the  inspectors. 

The  respective  brands  are  "crown  full,"  "maties,"  "spent," 
and  "  mixed."  Maties  are  those  fish  in  which  the  roes  and 
milts  are  perfectly  but  not  largely  developed — and  it  is  well 
to  understand  that  this  is  the  state  of  the  fish  in  which  it  is 
truly  in  the  best  condition  for  food — and  when  it  will  be  found 
most  delicious  to  eat,  as  well  as  most  nutritive.  Although 
it  does  not  exhibit,  whilst  in  this  condition,  so  bulky  an 
appearance  as  it  does  when  it  is  in  that  of  a  full  fish,  it  is 
in  reality  much  fatter,  for  the  bulk  of  the  full  fish  is  decep- 
tively produced  by  the  great  enlargement  of  the  roe  or 
milt,  and  this  does  not  take  place  without  a  corresponding 
diminution  of  the  body  of  the  fish.  The  full  fish,  however, 
are  those  which  are  most  sought  after  in  a  mercantile  point 
of  view,  because  of  their  larger  appearance.  The  spent  or 
shotten  fish  having  just  performed  their  function  of  spawn 
ing,  and  having  been  thereby  reduced  to  a  miserable,  lean, 
and  poor  state,  are  unpalatable,  and  more  or  less  unwhole- 
some as  food  when  in  a  fresh  state,  and  in  a  still  greater 
degree  when  cured.  The  more  immediately  they  are  taken 
after  spawning  the  worse  they  will  be,  and  the  longer  the 
time  that  expires  after  their  performance  of  that  function, 
the  less  unpalatable  or  unwholesome  they  will  become. 
But  it  is  always  advisable  to  avoid  taking  or  using  them  in 
any  way  until  they  shall  have  had  time  to  be  fully  recruited 
after  their  thorough  exhaustion  from  spawning. 

TJie  Norfolk  Herring  FisJicry. — From  a  recent  official 


48         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

report  by  Mr.  Frank  Buckland,  fishery  inspector,  we  are 
able  to  glean  some  valuable  statistics.  Yarmouth  for  800 
years  past  has  been  celebrated  for  its  herring  fishery.  The 
total  value  of  luggers,  trawling  smacks,  and  other  vessels, 
with  the  various  buildings  on  shore  belonging  to  the 
herring  and  trawling  fisheries,  is  supposed  to  be  little  short 
of  ;^7 50,000  sterling  at  the  present  time. 

The  fishing  vessels  belonging  to  Yarmouth  and  Gorles- 
ton  are : — 

First  class,  over  15  tons,  luggers  and  smacks      ...  ...     512 

Second  class,  over  2  tons  and  under  15  tons        ...  ..,     459 

Total     ..      971 

The  crews  of  these  vessels  would  average  eight  hands. 
There  are  also  T^y  small  boats,  with  an  average  of  two  men, 
and  about  120  Scotch  and  West  country  vessels,  which 
land  their  fish  in  Yarmouth  harbour  during  the  herring 
season. 

Of  late  years  the  number  of  boats  and  men  has  greatly 
increased,  and  the  depth  and  length  of  the  nets  have  also 
been  augmented.  Fourteen  years  ago  there  used  to  be 
about  15  yards  on  a  rope  ;  now  an  ordinary  net  is  from  18 
to  20  yards  on  the  rope.  Then  the  boats  used  to  fish  from 
61  to  91  nets  each  ;  now  they  fish  from  loi  to  161  nets. 

Many  boats  now  fish  with  nets  a  mile  and  a  third 
long ;  some  boats  have  been  known  to  use  nearly  two 
miles  of  nets.  During  the  months  of  September,  October, 
and  November,  it  would  be  well  within  the  mark  to  state 
that  there  are  fishing  for  herrings  every  favourable  night  in 
the  North  Sea  between  5000  or  6000  miles  of  netting. 
Formerly  the  herring  nets  were  made  of  twine ;  of  recent 
years  they  are  nearly  all  made  of  cotton.  Cotton  is  much 
softer,  and  fishes  better  than  twine. 


The  Herring  Fishery.  49 

The  size  of  the  drift-net  varies  on  different  parts  of  the 
coast.  The  herring-net  used  in  the  long-standing  Yar- 
mouth fishery  may,  however,  be  taken  as  an  iUustration  of 
this  particular  kmd  of  net,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
there  worked  agrees  essentially  with  its  operation  in  all  the 
drift  fisheries. 

The  drift-net,  taking  it  altogether,  consists  of  a  number 
of  nets,  usually  from  120  to  130,  each  of  which  is  17  yards 
long,  and  between  seven  and  eight  yards  deep.  They  are 
attached  along  their  upper  margin  by  short  pieces  of  line  a 
few  inches  apart  to  the  back-rope,  a  double  rope  enclosing 
at  short  intervals  single  pieces  of  cork  to  keep  that  part  of 
the  net  uppermost.  These  nets  are  fastened  together  at 
their  extremities,  and  thus  united  form  what  is  called  a 
"  train,  fleet,  or  drift  of  nets,"  extending  to  a  length  of 
nearly  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  The  depth  to  which  the  nets 
are  sunk  is  regulated  by  ropes  seven  or  eight  yards  long, 
called  "  seizings,"  two  of  which,  from  each  net,  are  made 
fast  to  a  stout  warp  running  the  whole  length  of  the  train, 
the  warp  itself  being  supported  near  the  surface  by  small 
kegs  or  buoys,  technically  called  "  bowls."  The  warp  is 
also  useful  in  taking  the  strain  off  the  nets,  and  in  pre- 
venting their  loss  in  case  the  train  should  be  fouled  and  cut 
by  a  vessel  passing  over  them  when  they  are  near  the  sur- 
face. The  minimum  size  of  the  herring-mesh  is  fixed  by 
law  at  "  one  inch  from  knot  to  knot  along  the  line,"  or,  to 
put  it  in  a  form  perhaps  less  likely  to  be  misunderstood,  at 
one  inch  square.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  found  that  in 
order  to  catch  good-sized  fish  rather  larger  dimensions  are 
desirable,  and  meshes  running  from  31  to  34  instead  of  36 
to  the  yard  are,  with  few  exceptions,  in  use  all  around  the 
coast. 

Drift  fishing  is  carried  on  at  night.     The  nets  are  shot 


50         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

a  little  before  sunset,  the  fishing-boat  being  kept  before  the 
wind,  and  with  only  enough  sail  set  to  take  her  clear  of 
the  nets  as  fast  as  they  are  thrown  over.  When  all  the 
nets  are  out,  about  15  fathoms  more  of  warp  are  paid  out, 
and  by  this  the  vessel  is  swung  round  and  then  rides  head 
to  wind,  a  small  mizen  being  set  to  keep  her  in  that 
position. 

The  whole  train  of  nets  is  now  extended  in  nearly  a 
straight  line,  the  back-rope,  to  which  the  corks  are  fastened, 
being  uppermost,  and  the  body  of  the  net  hanging  perpen- 
dicularly in  the  water,  forming  a  wall  of  netting  more 
than  2000  yards  long,  and  about  eight  yards  deep.  The 
strain  from  the  vessel  serves  to  keep  the  net  extended,  and 
the  whole — vessel  and  nets  together — drifts  along  with  the 
tide.  The  influence  of  the  tide,  however,  is  not  equally 
felt  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  nets.  The  train 
is  consequently  soon  thrown  into  irregular  curves,  often 
leading  to  considerable  confusion  when  many  boats  are 
fishing  in  close  company. 

During  the  day  the  herrings  keep  very  much  at  the 
bottom,  or  in  a  considerable  depth  of  water ;  but  as  night 
closes  in,  and  if  the  weather  be  favourable,  they  become 
more  active,  swim  nearer  the  surface,  and  in  their  attempts 
to  pass  through  the  barriers  of  netting  on  every  side  of 
them  many  become  meshed,  the  gills  of  any  moderate- 
sized  fish  preventing  its  return  when  once  the  head  has 
passed  completely  through  the  mesh. 

If,  after  two  or  three  hours,  an  examination  of  the  first 
of  the  nets  should  show  that  many  fish  have  been  caught, 
the  train  is  hauled  on  board  and  the  fish  shaken  out.  The 
nets  are  hauled  in  by  means  of  a  capstan  and  the  warp  to 
which  the  nets  are  fastened. 

Drift  fishing  is  carried  on  with   craft   of  various  sizes 


The  Herring  Fishery.  51 

from  the  Yarmouth  decked  lugger  of  60  tons  to  the  frail 
canvas  canoe  or  curraghoi  the  West  of  Ireland,  the  number 
of  men  and  the  quantity  of  net  varying  with  the  size  of  the 
boats. 

The  weight  of  fish  carried  from  the  Great  Eastern  rail- 
way stations  in  1874  was  as  follows  : — 

Tons. 
Yarmouth     ...  ...  ...  ...     27,517 

Lowestoft     ...  -  ...  ...  ...     23,861 

Harwich       ...  ...  ...  ...       2,509 

53.8S7 

In  addition  to  the  above,  about  20,000  tons  of  trawl  fish 
are  sent  to  Billingsgate  every  year  by  carrying  cutters  and 
steamers  from  the  Yarmouth  fleets  of  trawling  vessels  in 
the  North  Sea.  This  would  give  47,864  tons  from  Yar- 
mouth alone,  and  including  Lowestoft  and  Harwich,  74,234 
tons  of  fish.  To  this  must  be  added  a  very  large  quantity 
sent  by  steamers  to  London,  Newcastle,  Hull,  etc.,  and 
many  ship- loads  exported  to  ports  in  the  Mediterranean. 

A  very  important  trade,  that  of  kippering  herrings,  has, 
during  the  last  few  years,  been  introduced  into  Yarmouth, 
mainly  through  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  Mr.  John 
Woodger.  Herrings  for  kippering  must  be  of  the  very 
best  quality,  and  no  salt  is  used  in  this  process.  The 
entrails  of  the  fish  are  taken  out  ;  they  are  then  carefully 
washed,  and  hung  up  in  the  smoking-house  for  a  few  hours. 
Large  numbers  of  women  are  employed  by  the  kipper 
merchants,  and  it  is  supposed  that  more  than  looo  lasts  of 
herrings  are  now  yearly  required  for  this  trade  alone. 

The  quantity  of  herrings  landed  at  the  fish  wharf, 
Yarmouth,  between  August  and  December,  is  about  18,000 
lasts.  It  is  estimated  that  a  last  of  freshly  caught  herrings 
weighs  about  two  tons.     Probably  over  lOOO  lasts  in  each 


52         The  Coiii77tercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

year  may  be  added  to  this  for  herrings  landed  at  Gorleston 
and  other  parts  of  Yarmouth  harbour. 

In  1873  there  were  landed  at  Yarmouth  and  Lowestoft, 
including  the  spring  and  autumnal  fishing,  32,000  lasts  of 
herrings.  There  are  in  each  last  13,200  individual  fish. 
The  total  number,  therefore,  caught  in  1873  amounted 
to  422,400,000,  or  nearly  four  hundred  and  tzventy-three 
millions  of  herrings.  Take  these  fish  at  a  halfpenny  each 
when  cured  and  sold  in  the  retail  market,  and  we  shall 
find  the  value  of  the  herrings  caught  in  one  year  by  fishing 
vessels  sailing  out  of  Yarmouth  and  Lowestoft  to  be  oyer 
;^87  5, 000. 

Mr.  J.  G.  Nail,  in  1866,  estimated  the  entire  capital 
embarked  in  the  Yarmouth  fisheries,  including  trawling 
vessels,  to  be  about  ;^6oo,ooo  ;  this  has  since  much  in- 
creased. The  value  of  the  capital  embarked  in  the  Lowes- 
toft fisheries  is  also  very  large. 

The  herring  fisheries  in  Yarmouth  and  Lowestoft  may 
therefore  be  truly  said  to  be  of  national  importance  ;  the 
herrings  alone  caught  would  give  about  14  meals  in  the 
year  to  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  allowing  one  fish  to  a  meal. 

It  appears  that  there  are  no  herrings  caught  in  January. 
Towards  the  end  of  February  the  fishermen  begin  to  catch 
spring  herrings,  and  the  fishery  lasts  during  March,  April, 
and  May.  In  June  and  July  the  midsummer  herring 
fishery  is  carried  on,  more  or  less.  In  August  little  is 
done  in  herrings ;  the  "  harvest  of  the  sea "  begins  in 
September  and  lasts  until  about  Christmas.  This  is  called 
the  "  autumn  or  home  fishing." 

The  spring  herrings  are  described  as  being  nothing  but 
skin  and  bone  ;  there  is  no  fat  whatever  about  them.  They 
are  not  good  ;  indeed,  hardly  fit  for  human  food.    The  mid- 


The  Hei'ring  Fishery.  53 

summer  herring  is  a  larger,  handsomer,  and  fatter  fish  than 
the  spring  herring ;  for  whilst  the  spring  herrings  are 
only  from  six  to  seven  inches  in  length,  the  midsummer 
herring  is  generally  eight  to  nine  inches.  As  the  warm 
weather  comes  on,  so  the  quality  of  the  midsummer  herring 
improves. 

The  spring  herring  fishery  begins  at  the  end  of  Feb- 
ruary, and  continues  to  the  end  of  May.  These  herrings 
are  of  great  value  to  the  Lowestoft  people  ;  from  ^20,000 
to  ;!f30,000  are  put  into  circulation  in  Lowestoft,  and 
upwards  of  looo  men  and  boys  employed  on  the  water 
during  the  spring  herring  fishery.  At  that  time  boat- 
owners  have  no  other  employment  for  their  men ;  80  to  90 
boats  go  out  from  Lowestoft,  and  several  from  Gorleston, 
to  catch  these  spring  herrings. 

A  large  proportion  of  these  herrings  is  sold  for  bait 
to  the  Dutch  and  French  fishermen,  who  come  over  to 
Lowestoft  on  purpose  to  buy  them.  They  are  used  to 
bait  the  long  lines,  to  catch  halibut,  turbot,  etc. 

Herrings  caught  at  Lowestoft. 


Spring 

Midsummer 

Autumnal 

Year. 

herrings. 

herrings. 

herrings. 

Lasts. 

Lasts. 

Lasts. 

1873 

1887 

54 

10,973 

1874 

2546 

112 

9,173 

1875 

1064 

io5 

— 

The  commercial  importance  of  the  Lowestoft  fisheries 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  figures,  showing  the 
number  of  boats  and  men  employed  at  the  port  : — 

Trawling  smacks  ...  ...  ...       78 

Luggers  and  dandies        ...  ...  ...     260 

Small  boats       ...  ...  ...  ..     120 

The  trawlers  average  8  men  and  boys  ;  total,  624.     The 


54         The  Commercial  Pi'odiuts  of  the  Sea. 

luggers  and  dandies,  lo  men  and  boys  ;  total,  2600.  Small 
boats,  2  men  ;  total,  240.  This  gives  a  total  of  458  vessels 
of  all  classes,  and  3464  men  and  boys. 

This  is  the  total  of  registered  vessels  and  their  crews, 
but  it  does  not  include  the  shore  men,  who  are  employed 
in  the  markets  as  packers,  curers,  etc.  Nor  does  it  include 
the  West  country  or  Scotch  boats  which  use  the  port 
during  the  herring  season.  These  may  be  safely  reckoned 
as  120  vessels,  with  looo  men  and  boys. 

On  the  Cornish  coast  200  boats  from  Newlyn  and 
Mousehole  are  engaged  in  the  herring  fishery,  and  employ 
at  least  1000  persons.  Each  boat  of  modern  build  costs 
about  ^^250,  and  carries  nets  which  cost  on  the  average 
from  £a^  to  £\  \os.  per  net. 

The  quantity  of  herrings  caught  off  Ireland  in  1876  was 
180,318  mease,*  which  was  about  2000  meases  below  the 
take  of  the  previous  year.  At  the  average  of  2^s.  ^d.  pc 
mease,  this  gives  a  total  value  of  ;^226,8o3. 

The  DiitcJi  Herring  Fishery. — Before  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe  were 
debarred  the  use  of  animal  food  during  Lent,  the  con- 
sumption of  herrings  all  over  the  continent  was  im- 
mense, and  brought  prodigious  wealth  to  Holland.  De 
Witt,  the  great  Dutch  statesman,  mentions  that  about 
2000  busses  were  employed  by  the  Dutch  in  the  herring 
fishery  at  home.  Each  buss  had  a  complement  of  about 
25  men,  thus  rearing  about  50,000  seamen,  besides  giving 
bread  and  employment  to  several  hundred  thousand  people 
on  shore,  in  building  busses  and  making  nets,  casks,  etc.  ; 
and  it  was  an  old  proverb  in  Holland,  "  that  the  foundation 
of  Amsterdam  was  laid  on  herring-bones."  The  Dutch 
fishery,  besides  employing  so  many  thousand  men  in  catch- 
*  A  fish-measure  of  500  herrings,  sometimes  spelt  "  mace  "or  "  maize." 


The  Herring  Fishery.  55 

ing  and  curing  the  herrings,  employed  many  thousand 
more  seamen  for  managing  the  merchant  vessels  which 
carried  the  produce  of  the  fisheries  to  the  various  ports  of 
the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean  seas.  Thus,  by  cultivating 
and  encouraging  the  herring  fishery,  the  Dutch  formed 
themselves  into  a  great  maritime  power,  and  in  the  days  of 
Oliver  Cromwell  possessed  a  navy  not  inferior  to  that  of 
England. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Dutch  had  700  large  vessels 
employed  in  the  fishery,  and  the  quantity  of  fish  they 
caught  was  estimated  at  30,000,000  a  year ;  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  quantity  rose  to  50,000,000;  but  it  has 
since  greatly  declined.  The  English  fishermen  take  at 
present  about  7,000,000  tons  annually,  and  the  Dutch  not 
more  than  35,000.  In  the  year  1650  the  Dutch  had  5000 
"  busses,"  or  large  decked  fishing  luggers,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Scotland  ;  they  were  manned  by  50,000  fishermen,  and 
from  this  source  the  Dutch  navy,  so  long  the  most  formi- 
dable on  the  North  Sea,  was  chiefly  manned.  The  north- 
east coast  of  Scotland  was  chiefly  the  locality  of  the  Dutch 
fisheries,  and  here  they  had  to  compete  with  the  Norse 
fishers,  who  had  possession  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Islands  and  a  great  part  of  the  Caithness  coast,  the  creeks 
and  harbours  in  which  w^ere  used  for  the  coast  fisheries, 
while  the  larger  vessels  kept  the  sea. 

The  Dutch  herrings,  though  caught  almost  on  the  same 
ground  as  the  English  or  Scotch,  fetch  a  higher  price  than 
any  other  in  the  world,  and  are  eaten  raw  as  a  relish  in 
Holland  and  Germany.  The  first  barrel  of  new  herrings 
that  is  taken  is  forwarded  to  the  king  at  the  Hague.  It  is 
carried  in  procession  with  banners  and  military  music  ;  the 
day  is  one  of  public  rejoicing,  and  a  few  of  the  new  herrings 
are  sent  a*;  presents  to  the  nobles  of  the  land.     The  Dutch 


56         The  Commercial  Prodttcts  of  the  Sea. 

bleed  each  herring,  use  the  best  quality  of  salt,  and  take 
the  greatest  care  in  the  manipulation. 

The  herring  is  a  very  fat,  oily  fish,  and  unless  carefully 
and  rapidly  cured  with  salt,  becomes  soon  rancid  and 
unfit  for  use.  The  herrings  formerly  cured  in  Scotland 
were  not  gutted  and  bled  with  a  knife  like  the  Dutch 
herrings,  but  were  cured  intact  as  they  came  cut  of  the 
sea.  No  time  was  limited  for  putting  the  fish  into  salt  ; 
everything  was  done  there  as  here,  in  the  most  slovenly 
manner ;  and  while  the  Dutch  herring  found  a  ready 
market  all  over  the  continent,  the  Scotch  found  none,  and 
the  consumption  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  home 
market. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  fishery  inspectors  now  is,  that 
they  perambulate  the  curers'  yards  while  the  operation  of 
curing  is  going  on.  They  see  that  the  women  gut,  salt,  and 
pack  the  herrings  properly,  and  within  the  time  prescribed 
by  the  statute.  They  also  take  care  that  every  cask  shall 
contain  at  least  32  gallons,  and  that  the  full  fish  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  lank  or  spawned  fish.  It  requires  12  days 
to  cure  the  herrings  properly  ;  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time  the  casks  are  opened  again,  when  the  fish  are  found 
swimming  in  the  pickle,  which  is  formed  by  the  salt  and 
the  blood  of  the  fish.  The  superfluous  pickle  is  then  drawn 
off,  and  the  casks  are  filled  quite  full  with  herrings.  The 
eft*ect  of  the  salt  upon  the  herrings  is  to  compress  them 
into  much  smaller  bulk,  so  that  a  cask  which  has  been 
packed  quite  full  of  fresh  fish,  the  day  they  were  landed,  at 
the  end  of  1 2  days  is  only  about  two-thirds  full ;  or,  in 
other  words,  100  barrels  of  fresh  salted  fish  will  only  yield 
70  barrels  of  well-packed  cured  fish. 

The   French    Herring   Fishery. — The    herring    fishery 
known   in   France   in  the  eleventh  century  was  long  ex- 


The  Herring  Fishery.  57 

clusively  pursued  by  Dieppe  and  Rouen  fishermen,  who 
caught  this  fish  in  the  North  Sea,  and  distributed  it 
over  France  and  the  Levant.  Later,  other  maritime  ports 
entered  upon  this  industry  ;  and  in  1789  Fecamp  had  50 
boats  occupied  in  the  herring  fishery.  Now,  after  a 
decHne  of  the  fishery  occasioned  by  the  wars  of  the 
Republic  and  the  Empire,  it  has  taken  a  fresh  start, 
and  become  of  great  importance  to  Dieppe  and  Boulogne. 
The  herring  fishery  is  carried  on  in  France  on  the  coasts 
of  Dunkirk  and  Havre,  from  September  to  February  or 
March,  and  is  sometimes  continued  till  May. 

In  France  180  vessels,  of  8000  tons  burden,  are  employed 
in  catching  herrings  for  salting,  and  take  about  8,500,000 
kilogrammes  a  year.  Of  these  vessels  about  100  belong 
to  the  port  of  Boulogne-sur-Mer ;  the  rest  to  Dieppe, 
Fecamp,  St.  Valery-en-Caux,  Calais,  Treport,  and  Grave- 
lines.  The  number  of  vessels  employed  in  fishing  herrings 
which  are  sold  fresh  is  470,  of  about  10,000  tons  burden,  and 
they  catch  on  an  average  13,000,000  kilogrammes  annually. 
They  belong  to  the  aforesaid  ports,  and  also  to  those  of 
Barfleur,  Berck,  Dunkirk,  Etape,  Le  Hourdel,  Port-en- 
Bessin,  and  St.  Valcry-sur-Somme.  At  Boulogne  the 
fishery  is  better  organized  than  anywhere  else  in  France, 
and  is  carried  on  by  means  of  associations  composed  of  the 
owners  of  the  boats  and  the  crews. 

A  recent  very  productive  year,  in  which  but  109  boats  and 
1 506  men  were  engaged  from  Boulogne,  resulted  in  a  catch 
of  4518  lasts  of  fresh  and  salted  herrings,  the  total  money 
proceeds  of  which  were  ;^i  18,015.  In  1873,  282  boats  were 
employed,  of  8350  tons,  and  employing  3750  men.  The 
catch  of  herrings  yielded  over  ^200,000,  and  the  value  of 
the  other  fisheries  carried  on  from  the  port  ;^  11 5,000  more. 

The  take  of    herrings   on  the  French  coasts  in  1873 


58         The  Cominercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

amounted  in  value  to  somewhat  under  ;:6^400,ooo.  The 
herring  fishery  of  France  realized  in  1866  a  little  over 
7,000,000  francs;  in  1873  it  reached  nearly  9,500,000  francs. 

The  Norzvay  Herring  Fishery. — The  herring  is  found 
from  Mandal,  on  the  extreme  south  of  Norway,  to  the 
North  Cape.  They  seem  to  live  in  the  deep  submarine 
valley  between  the  47th  and  67th  degrees  of  latitude ; 
that  is,  from  about  the  English  Channel  on  the  south,  to 
the  North  Cape  at  the  extreme  north  of  Norway.  It 
approaches  the  shore  when  about  to  spawn.  They 
abandon  water  which  has  not  at  least  the  temperature 
of  4°  C.  or  40°  F.,  either  because  this  temperature  is 
disagreeable  to  them,  or  they  do  not  find  suitable  food. 
From  some  unknown  cause,  the  localities  where  they  pre- 
sent themselves  vary  each  year.  The  fishermen  begin  to 
take  a  few  spring  herrings  towards  the  end  of  March, 
which  are  very  thin,  but  improve  in  July  and  August. 
The  winter  herrings  are  fished  between  15th  January  and 
15th  March.  About  1,000,000  barrels  are  annually  pro- 
cured, of  which  a  considerable  portion  finds  its  way  to 
Great  Britain,  and  the  rest  go  to  Sweden  and  the  Baltic 
ports. 

The  North  American  Fishery. — The  common  American 
herring  {Cliipea  elongata,  Storer)  is  amongst  the  most 
valuable  of  food  fishes.  The  habits,  haunts,  and  seasons 
of  the  herring  are  matters  of  curious  inquiry.  It  seems, 
however,  now  to  be  well  established  that  the  only  migra- 
tion of  the  herring  is  from  the  deep  seas  to  the  shores  at 
the  spawning  season,  and  from  the  shore  to  the  deep  seas 
when  this  is  over. 

As  early  as  March  herrings  are  taken  in  nets  on  the 
coast,  but  the  fish  are  so  straggling  and  the  seas  so 
boisterous,  that,  except  for  bait,  fishing  does  not  commence 


The  Herring  Fishery.  59 

till  May.  In  this  month  a  run  of  large  fat  herrings  is 
taken  in  nets  upon  the  banks,  which  lie  10  or  15  miles  sea- 
ward, and  carry  about  75  fathoms  water.  A  net  30  fathoms 
long  and  three  deep  is  passed  from  the  stern  of  a  boat  at 
anchor.  The  free  end  drifts,  with  the  tide,  held  to  the 
surface  by  cork  floats — sometimes  the  tides  carry  the  net 
down  15  fathoms  in  a  slanting  direction — thus  drifting  from 
night  to  morning;  the  net  is  overhauled, and  from  20  to  100 
dozen  is  the  ordinary  catch.  It  is  very  evident  that,  owing 
to  the  distance  from  shore,  and  the  need  of  calm  weather  for 
the  boats  and  nets,  as  well  as  for  the  fish,  which  are  very  sus- 
ceptible to  rough  seas,  this  fishing  must  be  precarious.  The 
boats  are  stout,  weatherly  keel  boats,  with  a  half  deck, 
from  five  to  15  tons,  carrying  a  jib,  lore  and  main  sail,  and 
usually  called  second-class  fishermen  when  entered  at  a 
regatta. 

The  "  in  shore  run,"  a  fish  of  smaller  size,  are  taken  in 
nets  set  to  a  buoy,  instead  of  a  boat,  the  free  end  drifting 
to  the  tide.  These  nets  are  often  moored  irom  one  buoy 
to  another  to  preserve  a  permanent  position  across  a  creek 
or  small  bay.  In  these  various  ways  herrings  are  taken  by 
the  shore  population  of  the  whole  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia,  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  Cumberland. 
The  immense  tides  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  leaving  long  flats 
and  sand-bars  at  low  tide,  and  the  steep  trap  formation  oi 
its  southern  coast  line  have  singularly  altered  the  character 
of  the  fishery.  Here  the  drift-net  fishing  is  carried  on, 
boats  and  nets  drifting  for  miles  upon  the  flow  and  returning 
upon  the  ebb,  the  nets  twisted  and  coiled  into  apparently 
impossible  masses.  The  shores  of  the  trap  formation  beino- 
flat  tables  of  trap  reaching  plane  after  plane  into  the  sea, 
with  no  crevice  to  hold  a  stake  or  anchor  a  buoy,  the  fisher- 
men  procure  stout  spruce   fir  trees,  and    lopping   off"  the 


6o         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

branches,  leave  the  long  lateral  roots  attached  to  them. 
These  they  place  upright  in  rows  upon  the  bare  rock,  and 
pile  heavy  stones  upon  the  roots  as  ballast,  stretching  their 
nets  between  them.  Entirely  submerged  at  flood  tide,  at  ebb 
they  are  left  high  and  dry,  and  often  loaded  down  with  fish 
caught  by  the  gills  in  the  meshes  of  the  net.  These  nets 
are  usually  set  for  a  large,  lean  spring  herring,  running  for 
the  flats  in  early  spring  to  spawn.  This  method  of  fishing 
obtains  throughout  the  whole  trap  district  of  the  province 
bordering  upon  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

The  value  of  the  herrings  caught  in  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  in  1876  was  returned  at  ^825,620. 

Herring  {Cliipca  Jiarengiis)  and  shad  {Alosa  sapidis- 
siind)  are  so  abundant  in  North  Carolina  that  the  former 
sell  for  6s.  per  1000,  and  the  finest  shad  at  from  6d.  to  li-. 
each.  The  seines  used  are  of  immense  size,  and  are 
worked  by  steam  power.  A  seine  worked  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Chowan  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  in 
it  300,000  herrings  have  been  taken  in  one  day.  They 
also  take  from  looo  to  2000  shad  at  a  catch.  Steamers  are 
at  the  wharves,  constantly  loading  with  these  fine  fish, 
packed  in  ice,  lor  the  New  York  and  other  northern 
markets. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   PILCHARD   FISHERY. 

The  pilchard  fishery  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire — Description  of  drift  and 
seine  nets — Process  of  cleaning  and  salting  the  fish — Statistics  of  catch  in 
various  years — Definitions  of  fish  measures  — Cornish  sardines — Irish 
fishery — French  fishery. 

The  pilchard  {Cliipca  pilcharihis)  is  of  a  somewhat  less  com- 
pressed and  rounded  form  than  the  herring.  The  great 
seat  of  this  British  fishery  is  the  coast  of  Devonshire  and 
Cornwall,  particularly  Mount's  Bay,  St.  Ives,  and  Meva- 
gissey,  where  they  are  caught  in  vast  numbers.  In  July  the 
early  pilchard  fishing  commences,  and  from  that  time  to 
the  beginning  of  September  the  whole  coast  from  St.  Ives 
to  the  Ram  Head  is  in  a  state  of  excitement  and  activity. 
So  much  do  the  comforts  of  all  the  labouring  classes 
depend  on  a  successful  take  of  pilchards,  that  an  unpro- 
ductive season  is  nearly  as  disastrous  as  a  deficient  harvest 
on  land  would  be. 

The  fish  are  taken  in  either  drift-nets  or  seines.  The 
former  are  for  entangling  the  fish  in  the  open  sea,  and  are 
about  half  a  mile  in  length,  by  five  fathoms  in  depth. 
The  latter  are  cast  near  the  shore,  and  in  shallow  water. 
To  work  a  seine  three  boats  are  required.     The  first  large 


62  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

one,  carrying  the  stop  seine,  is  manned  by  a  crew  of  nine, 
six  rowing,  two  to  slioot  the  seine,  and  one  acting  as  bow- 
man, on  whom  the  course  of  the  boat  depends.  The 
second  boat  is  called  the  volgar  or  follower,  and  carries  the 
tuck  or  smaller  lifting  seine.  The  third  is  the  lurker,  the 
smallest -of  the  three,  and  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  hirer 
or  guide,  and  some  boys.  The  seine  is  of  various  lengths, 
ranging  from  250  to  300  fathoms,  by  13  to  16  fathoms 
deep.  Its  meshes  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  drift-net, 
the  object  being  to  enclose  the  fish  without  meshing 
them. 

The  seine  net  has  a  line  of  head-ropes,  to  which  are 
attached  corks  and  other  buoys,  to  keep  its  upper  edge 
near  the  surface.  To  the  lower  edge  are  attached  innumer- 
able small  pieces  of  lead,  which  bear  it  down  and  keep  it 
close  to  the  ground,  the  object  being  to  shoot  the  seine  in 
shallow  water  with  a  clear  bottom.  The  "tuck"  is  a 
similar  net,  but  of  smaller  dimensions ;  its  mesh  is  of  the 
same  size  as  that  of  the  seine,  but  it  has  in  the  middle 
a  hollow  bag,  as  it  were,  into  which  the  fish  go  when  the 
process  of  tucking  is  going  on.  These  nets  are  very 
expensive,  costing  from  i!^300  to  £6(X). 

The  "  drift "  fishing  employs  about  47  boats.  Each 
boat  costs  about  ;^200,  or  when  a  set  of  three  nets  is  pro- 
vided, so  as  to  fish  for  herrings  and  mackerel  as  well  as 
pilchards,  the  cost  is  ;{S"400.  Unlike  the  seine  boats,  the 
drift  boats  must  all  be  manned  by  sailors. 

As  many  as  4200  hogsheads,  or  over  1200  tons,  of  fish 
have  been  taken  in  one  cast  of  the  seine,  but  this  enormous 
catch  was  an  extraordinary  haul.  A  good  cast,  enclosing 
a  large  shoal,  has,  however,  often  yielded  1200  hogsheads 
of  fish. 

The  pilchards,  when  taken  on  shore,  are   gutted   and 


The  Pilchard  Fishery.  6 


o 


cleaned  by  women  and  children,  and  piled,  with  layers  of 
salt,  in  large  heaps  in  cellars  or  warehouses,  where  they 
remain  for  about  a  month  ;  and  being  subsequently  washed 
and  thoroughly  cleaned,  are  packed  in  hogsheads  and 
subjected  to  pressure  to  extract  the  oil,  about  three  gallons 
being  yielded  by  each  cask,  when  the  fish  are  fat. 

Great  quantities  of  salted  pilchards  are  sent  to  the 
Mediterranean,  particularly  to  Naples  and  other  parts  of 
Italy,  where  they  are  largely  consumed  during  Lent. 

The  number  of  hogsheads  exported  in  1S51  was  26,743. 
The  average  for  10  years  then  stood  at  23,446  hogsheads. 
Taking  the  number  at  2500  fish  to  the  hogshead,  over 
58,500,000  fish  are  caught  annually,  weighing  10,620  tons. 
About  5000  tons  of  salt  are  required  to  cure  the  catch  for 
export,  as  there  is  but  a  small  local  consumption. 

In  the  seven  years  ending  1863  the  average  annual 
export  was  only  13,757  hogsheads,  but  1859  ^^id  i860  were 
unprecedently  bad  years,  the  take  being  only  3500  hogs- 
heads. The  catch  of  1S63,  on  the  contrary,  was  large, 
reaching  26,057  hogsheads.  The  shipments  were  larger  at 
the  close  of  the  last  century  than  they  are  now. 

The  total  takes  in  Cornwall  for  the  last  three  years 
have  been  very  small,  namely,  7543^  hogsheads  in  1874, 
7337J  in  1875,  and  6700  in  1876.  In  the  last-named  year 
only  from  300  to  400  hogsheads  were  captured  during  the 
summer  fishing,  which  ends  on  the  15th  of  September. 
These  produced  from  G^s.  to  ^Js.  per  hogshead.  The  main 
take  was  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  and  they  went  as  high 
in  price  as  lOOs.  per  hogshead. 

Italy  will  absorb,  at  fair  prices,  as  much  as  30,000 
hogsheads  annually,  and  depends  upon  Cornwall  for  the 
supply. 

Pilchards  arrive  on  the  coasts  of  Devon  and  Cornwall 


64         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

from  June  to  September  ;  sometimes  they  are  caught  about 
Christmas.  A  hogshead  of  pilchards,  well  cured  and 
pressed,  will  hold  2500  to  3000  fish.  The  fresh  fish  weigh 
about  6\  cwt,  and  the  salt  3^  cvvt.,  but  the  weight  of  the 
hogsheads  when  cured  and  pressed  is  reduced  to  about  4^ 
cwt,  including  the  weight  usually  allowed  for  the  cask, 
28  lbs.  Ten  thousand  pilchards  make  a  last.  A  hogs- 
head is  supposed  to  consist  of  eight  baskets  of  fish,  and 
a  basket  contains  about  400 ;  but  this  number  varies  with 
the  size  of  the  fish.  The  fish  are  sold  by  the  long  hundred 
—  120. 

A  new  industry  has  been  started  in  Cornwall  within  a 
year  or  two,  that  of  preserving  small  pilchards  in  oil  in  tins, 
after  the  manner  of  sardines.  The  seat  of  the  company's 
operations  is  at  Newlyn  ;  a  Frenchman  conducts  the  opera- 
tions. The  Cornish  sardines  grow  in  favour  and  demand 
in  London.  Their  flavour  is  considered  quite  equal  to  that 
of  the  foreign  fish,  and  their  nutritive  qualities  greater  ; 
while  the  extra  size  of  the  box,  and  the  liberal  way  in 
which  it  is  filled,  all  tend  to  commend  the  home  product. 

Large  shoals  of  pilchards  appeared  off  the  coast  of 
Cork  and  Kerry  during  the  year  1876,  principally  from 
July  to  the  end  of  October,  some  as  late  as  November. 
They  were  in  the  greatest  abundance  off  the  Cork  coast, 
and  in  many  places  came  close  in  to  the  shore,  and 
were  captured  by  small  seines  drawn  in  upon  the  rocks. 
No  efforts  have  yet  been  made  in  Ireland  to  cure  for  the 
continental  markets,  but  some  have  been  cured  for  home 
consumption  on  various  parts  of  the  coast.  By  degrees 
this  fish  is  being  regarded  with  more  favour  by  the  country 
people,  and  if  they  continue  to  frequent  the  L'ish  coasts  as 
they  have  now  done  for  some  years,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  a  considerable  trade  will  result. 


The  Pilchard  Fishery.  65 

Pilchards  frequent  the  coasts  of  France  and  Spain  in 
small  numbers.  The  fishery  of  Nantes  is  carried  on  with 
great  activity,  and  employs  in  the  season  700  boats,  manned 
by  about  3000  seamen. 


66        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    MACKEREL  FISHERY. 

The  mackerel  fishery  on  the  coasts  of  Devon  and  Cornwall — The  Lowestoft 
mackerel  fishery — Statistics  of  fishery — American  mackerel  fishery — Mode 
of  curing  the  fish. 

The  mackerel  (Scomber  scomhrus)  is  a  much  esteemed  fish. 
The  excitement  on  the  Devon  and  Cornish  coasts  when 
the  shoals  of  this  fish  appear  is  very  great.  On  their 
periodical  arrivals,  which  is  their  custom  in  multitudes,  for 
the  purpose  of  feeding  on  a  small  fry  very  similar  to  white- 
bait, a  practised  eye  will  readily  observe  their  manoeuvres 
some  distance  from  the  shore,  inasmuch  as  the  moment 
they  discover  the  food  they  love  so  well,  their  numbers  and 
greedy  propensities  cause  them  to  rush  on  their  prey,  which, 
endeavouring  to  escape  from  death,  disturbs  the  w'ater  in 
large  circles  like  a  shower  of  hailstones  dropping  therein ; 
indeed,  we  know  of  nothing  more  similar  to  compare  it  to. 
The  moment  one  of  these  disturbed  spots  appears  on  the 
water,  men  are  placed  on  the  highest  clifis  to  look  out, 
while  the  boats  with  their  crews  and  nets  prepared  are 
launched  and  ready  for  action.  The  mackerel  are  some- 
times seen  at  least  a  mile  from  shore,  but  the  moment  they 
attack  the  small  bait,  the  latter  fly  tov/ards  the  beach,  till 
at  times  they  approach  within  a  hundred  yards  or  nearer ; 


The  Mackerel  Fisheiy.  67 

and  the  look-out  man,  who  discovers  them  more  readily 
from  an  eminence,  shouts  at  the  extent  of  his  lungs,  the 
boats  are  rapidly  rowed  around  the  feasting  fish  in  a  circle, 
the  nets  cast,  and  then  being  hauled  towards  the  shore  by 
men  on  land,  some  thousands  of  mackerel  are  enclosed  in 
a  large  bag  at  the  extremity  of  the  net. 

The  demand  for  this  fish  is  so  great,  that  they  are  rarely 
to  be  met  with  in  the  towns  in  the  west. 

During  1869  the  quantity  of  mackerel  taken  from  Pen- 
zance and  St.  Ives  by  railway  amounted  to  71,959  pads,  or 
1 617  tons;  to  May  i,  1870,  the  quantity  conveyed  from 
the  same  places  amounted  to  40,100  pads,  or  871  tons. 

The  Lowestoft  Mackerel  Fishery. — The  mackerel  voyage 
on  the  east  coast,  even  in  its  best  days,  was  rarely  re- 
munerative either  to  owners  or  men  ;  more  frequently  the 
amount  realized  barely  paid  charges  for  provisions,  leaving 
nothing  for  wages,  or  wear  and  tear  of  boats  and  nets. 
The  owners  never  expected  much,  and  it  was  more  to 
keep  their  men  in  employment,  than  in  anticipation  of 
profit,  that  this  voyage  was  carried  on  for  many  years. 
In  1854  there  were  20  mackerel  boats  out  of  Lowestoft; 
in  1862  these  had  decreased  to  three,  and  their  gross 
earnings  averaged  only  £()  per  boat. 

In  former  years  mackerel  realized  a  large  price ;  now 
the  merchants  have  to  compete  with  very  fine  fish  caught 
ofif  the  Irish  coast  near  Kinsale,  and  also  with  the  immense 
numbers  imported  from  Norway.  These  mackerel  are 
packed  in  ice,  and  find  a  ready  market  amongst  the  manu- 
facturing towns,  as  well  as  in  London.  In  1874  Yarmouth 
and  Gorleston  had  a  few  boats  engaged  in  this  fishery  for  a 
short  time  in  the  autumn  ;  i.e.,  nearly  four  months  later 
than  the  mackerel  voyage  of  former  years  commenced.  In 
1875,  3926  long  hundred  (120)  were  caught,  t\\e  average 


68         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

price  of  the  fish  being  26s.  per  hundred  ;  total  value, 
;^4907  \Qs.  In  1862  and  1870  the  annual  take  was 
valued  at  ;^9000. 

The  average  number  of  boats  engaged  in  this  fishery 
may  be  stated  at  about  50- 

Mackerel  nets  have  only  about  24  or  25  meshes  to  the 
yard,  and  are  not  so  deep  as  the  herring  nets,  but  they  are 
twice  as  long — a  fleet  of  mackerel  nets,  such  as  is  used  by 
the  Yarmouth  boats,  extending  to  a  distance  of  nearly  two 
miles  and  a  half. 

The  official  returns  of  the  mackerel  fishery  for  Ireland 
for  1876  showed  a  gross  capture  of  1,391,083  boxes,  of 
six  score  fish  each.  The  prices  varied  from  3^-.  to  ^s.  per 
box,  the  total  amount  realized  being  ;^i  10,223.  The 
regular  mackerel  fishing  season  commences  about  the 
middle  of  March  and  ends  about  the  last  of  June.  During 
that  period  the  lowest  price  obtained  was  \2s.  per  box. 
The  average  price  for  the  total  quantity  taken  was  \6s.  per 
box  of  six  score. 

The  mackerel  fishery  on  the  French  coast,  taking  the 
catch  of  the  years  1873  and  1874,  averages  ;!^i40,ooo  in 
value.  It  is  principally  carried  on  from  the  ports  of 
Boulogne,  Dieppe,  Fecamp,  Caen,  and  Douarnenez,  In 
1867  the  value  of  the  French  catch  of  mackerel  was  under 
i^  1 00,000. 

The  mackerel  on  the  coast  of  Norway  is,  as  an  article 
of  export,  comparatively  of  modern  fishery  growth.  The 
fishery  is  carried  on  along  the  southern  coast  from  Chris- 
tiansand  to  Mandel,  during  the  three  summer  months  of 
May,  June,  and  July.  The  quantity  exported  to  Great 
Britain  in  1869  was  Zy6c)'i,6i'j  fish,  valued  at  ;^i8,ii7.  The 
average  price  paid  was  2s.  per  score. .  The  boats'  crews 
engaged  in  this  fishery  earned  about  ^60  to  ^^90  per  boat- 


The  Mackerel  FisJmy.  69 

The  American  Mackerel  Fishery. — The  spring  mackerel 
{Scomber  vernales,  Mitch.)  is  the  ordinary  mackerel  of  com- 
merce. The  fall  mackerel  is  considered  by  some  naturalists 
a  distinct  species,  and  has  been  named  Scomber  grex.  The 
mackerel  is  not  a  migratory  fish,  but  draws  off  into  deep 
water  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  returns  to  the  shallow 
water  near  the  shores  at  the  beginning  of  summer,  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  its  spawn.  The  mackerel  fishery  of 
Nova  Scotia  composes  one  of  its  largest  exports.  Besides 
the  catch  by  the  colonial  fishermen,  about  50,000  barrels 
more  are  taken  in  British  waters  annually  by  the  Americans, 
making  about  200,000  barrels  in  all. 

On  the  North  American  coast  a  very  extensive  trade  is 
carried  on  in  pickled  mackerel.  Every  little  creek  and 
day  from  Cape  Sable  to  Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia  occasion- 
ally overflows  with  this  fish,  and  they  are  taken  in  nets, 
from  100  to  600  barrels  being  secured  at  a  single  draught. 
Men,  women,  and  children  are  then  employed  night  and 
day  in  curing  them.  150,000  barrels  of  mackerel  are  often 
exported  from  the  port  of  Halifax  alone,  principally  to 
the  United  States,  valued  at  ^^300,000.  In  1874,  32,000,000 
pounds  weight  of  mackerel  were  taken  on  the  Canadian 
coasts. 

There  are  about  60,000  tons  register  of  American  boats 
engaged  in  the  mackerel  fishery,  chiefly  from  the  States 
of  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  and  employing  10,000  men. 
The  quantity  of  mackerel  taken  by  these  boats  sometimes 
amounts  to  350,000  barrels,  valued  at  ;^500,000. 

When  an  American  vessel  reaches  a  place  where  the 
fish  are  supposed  to  be  plentiful,  the  master  furls  all  his 
sails  except  the  mainsail,  brings  his  vessel's  bow  to  the 
wind,  ranges  his  crew  at  intervals  along  one  of  her  sides, 
and,  without  a  mackerel  in  sight,  attempts  to  raise  a  school 


70         The  Commercial  Products  of  tJte  Sea. 

by  throwing  over  bait.  The  baiter  stands  amidships,  with 
a  bait-box  outside  the  rail,  and  with  a  tin  cup  nailed  to  a 
long  handle  he  scatters  the  bait  on  the  water.  If  the 
mackerel  appear,  the  men  throw  out  short  lines,  to  the 
hooks  of  which  a  glittering  pewter  jig  is  affixed.  The  fish, 
if  they  bite  at  all,  generally  bite  rapidly,  and  are  hauled  in 
as  fast  as  the  most  active  man  can  throw  out  and  draw  in 
a  line.  As  they  pull  them  on  board,  the  fisherman,  with  a 
jerk,  throws  them  into  a  barrel  standing  beside  him.  So 
ravenously  do  they  bite,  that  sometimes  a  barrelful  is  caught 
in  15  minutes  by  a  single  man.  Some  active  young  men 
will  haul  in  and  jerk  off  a  fish  and  throw  out  the  line  for 
another  with  a  single  motion,  and  repeat  the  act  in  such 
rapid  succession  that  their  arms  seem  continually  on  the 
swing.  While  the  school  remains  alongside  and  will  take 
the  hook,  the  excitement  of  the  men,  and  the  rushing 
noise  of  the  fish  in  their  beautiful  and  manifold  evolu- 
tions in  the  water,  arrest  the  attention  of  the  most  careless 
observer. 

The  summer  mackerel  fishing  is  carried  on  in  two 
ways,  with  hooks  and  lines,  and  with  the  seine.  The  greater 
number  of  fishermen  use  the  hook  and  line.  These  are  the 
crews  of  those  beautiful  schooners  to  be  met  with  every- 
where in  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  and 
which  from  afar  look  more  like  a  small  squadron  of  yachts 
than  a  fleet  of  fishing  vessels,  so  beautiful  are  their  masts 
and  sails,  and  so  neat  and  clean  are  they  kept.  But  on  a 
nearer  approach  this  is  found  to  be  an  error,  for  on  the 
decks  of  these  vessels  are  to  be  seen  crews  of  from  10  to 
20  men,  all  occupied  either  in  catching  fish,  in  repairing 
fishing  implements,  or  in  splitting  and  salting  fish  that  have 
been  taken ;  and  what  is  most  striking  is  the  order  that 


The  Mackerel  Fishery.  yi 

reigns  on  board  of  these  schooners,  whose  decks  and  holds 
are  almost  always  full  of  fish,  fish  barrels,  salt,  etc. 

Before  sailing  from  their  port  of  outfit  for  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  they  provide  themselves  with  several  barrels 
of  very  fat  little  fish,  called  poggies,  to  serve  as  bait  and 
as  feed,  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  mackerel  to  the  surface 
of  the  water  and  retaining  them  near  the  vessel. 

At  a  later  period,  when  the  poggies  are  exhausted, 
recourse  is  had  to  the  offal  of  the  mackerel  for  bait,  and  it 
is  prepared  in  this  way  :— Whole  fishes,  or  the  offal  of  fishes, 
either  poggies,  mackerel,  or  others,  are  chopped  very  fine 
in  a  machine  something  like  a  chaff  or  straw  cutter,  and 
then  put  into  a  large  bucket  full  of  salt  water ;  the  mixture 
is  then  stirred  for  a  long  time  with  a  small  paddle,  and  this 
is  the  whole  secret  of  preparing  feed  for  mackerel.  Machines 
for  chopping  up  the  fish  are  sold  at  from  £i  to  ;^i  los., 
according  to  their  size. 

As  soon  as  the  schooners  have  reached  the  place  where 
schools  of  mackerel  are  usually  found,  they  keep  cruising 
backwards  and  forwards,  and  the  moment  there  is  the  least 
appearance  of  fish,  or  their  presence  is  even  suspected  near 
a  vessel,  the  jibs  are  taken  in,  and  the  vessel  is  brought  to, 
with  the  mizen-sail  and  mainsail  veered  half  round.  Feed 
is  then  scattered  all  around  from  small  pails ;  the  fishermen 
seize  their  lines,  bait  their  hooks  with  small  pieces  of  the 
skin  of  the  neck  of  the  mackerel  or  of  any  other  fish  (but 
the  mackerel  is  much  preferable),  and  throw  them  into  the 
water.  The  lines  are  fine,  and  made  of  hemp  or  cotton, 
generally  the  latter.  They  are  from  six  to  eight  fathoms 
long,  and  to  one  end  is  fastened  a  small  sinker  of  polished 
pewter,  oblong  in  shape,  and  weighing  about  two  ounces, 
on  which  is  soldered  a  middle-sized  hook.  Each  fisher- 
man plies  two  lines,  one  in  each  hand,  and  leans  on  the 


72         The  Commercial  P^'oducts  of  the  Sea. 

rail  while  fishing.  He  very  seldom  pays  out  more  than 
four  or  five  fathoms  of  line,  for  the  mackerel,  attracted  by 
the  chopped  fish  thrown  overboard,  thousands  of  pieces  of 
which  float  in  mid-water,  leaves  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and 
comes  swimming  towards  the  surface  to  feast  with  avidity 
on  this  excellent  bait,  prepared  for  him  with  so  much  care  ; 
and  while  he  is  gorging  himself  with  pieces  of  poggie  and 
mackerel,  he  seizes  the  bait  on  the  fisherman's  hook,  and 
soon,  in  spite  of  his  violent  efforts  to  break  the  iron  that  is 
tearing  his  mouth,  and  to  free  himself,  he  is  pulled  out  of 
the  water  and  thrown  upon  the  deck,  where  he  dies  before 
long. 

The  fish  are  classed  by  the  inspectors  into  four  grades, 
the  third  and  fourth  quality  being  worth  only  half  the  value 
of  No.  I.  They  are  packed  for  shipment  in  barrels,  half 
quarter,  and  eighth  barrels.  Nos.  i  and  2  are  intended  for 
the  home  markets  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  the 
lowest  quality  being  principally  consumed  in  the  West 
Indies. 

In  curing  them,  the  common  custom  is  to  dip  them  in 
fine  salt  before  salting  in  the  barrels.  When  this  is  neg- 
lected, the  fish  adhere  together,  and  become  red  and 
tainted.  The  proper  mode  of  packing  is  with  the  flesh 
side  down  ;  this  prevents  the  fish  from  tainting,  and  allows 
all  impurities  in  the  salt  to  settle  away  from  the  flesh  of 
the  fish.  Mackerel  are  also  cured  in  hermetically  sealed 
tins,  but  not  to  a  very  large  extent  In  1873  the  quantity 
so  packed  was  2i,cx)0  cans  in  New  Brunswick,  and  10,842 
cans  in  Nova  Scotia. 


-CHAPTER  V. 

THE   SALMON    FISHERY. 

Salmon  formerly  common  in  the  Thames— Statistics  of  salmon  brought  to 
London — Value  of  the  salmon  fisheries  in  1871 — Sales  at  Billingsgate — 
halmon  fisheries  of  Norway,  Canadian  Dominion,  etc. — Acclimatization 
in  Australia. 

At  present  one  of  the  most  esteemed  fish  is  the  sahnon 
{Salnio  salor).  In  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  (i  197),  the  Thames 
is  described  as  containing  "  remarkably  good  salmon ; "  and 
even  early  in  the  present  century  the  Thames  abounded 
with  salmon  of  the  finest  quality.  "  Thames  salmon  "  then 
bore  a  higher  price  than  that  obtained  from  most  other 
streams,  and  so  copious  was  once  the  supply,  that  in  the 
olden  time  it  was  usual  to  insert  a  clause  in  the  indentures 
of  London  apprentices,  that  they  should  not  be  fed  upon 
salmon  more  than  a  certain  number  of  days  in  the  month. 
Then  came  the  time  when  the  river  water  became  impure. 
Not  only  was  the  population  of  the  metropolis  enormously 
increased,  but,  being  well  sewered,  its  vast  network  of 
drains  poured  their  contents  (by  the  authority  of  an  Act 
of  Parliament)  into  the  river.  Then  gas-works  were  made, 
and  their  ammoniacal  water  still  further  poisoned  the 
stream.  Against  these  impurities  the  salmon  could  not 
contend  ;  they  gradually,  and  at  length  totally,  disappeared 
from  the  waters  of  our  queen  of  rivers. 


74         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  statistics  of  the  fish  food 
which  is  drawn  from  the  sea  ;  we  can  only  guess  at  it  from 
such  data  as  have  been  made  accessible.  The  following 
statistics  show  the  quantities  of  salmon  (in  boxes  of  120  lbs. 
each)  received  and  sold  in  London  from  1850  to  1871  : — 


English 

Years. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Dutch. 

Norwegian. 

and 
Welsh. 

1S50    ... 

13,940 

2135 

105 

54 

72 

1S51 

",593 

414I 

203 

212 

40 

1852    ... 

13,044 

3602 

176 

306 

20 

1853    •.. 

19,485 

5052 

401 

1208 

20 

1854    ... 

23,194 

6333 

345 

— 

128 

1855    ... 

18,197 

4IOI 

227 

— 

59 

1856    ... 

15,438 

6568 

68 

5 

200 

1857    ... 

18,654 

4904 

622 

220 

1858    ... 

2', 564 

6429 

973 

19 

499 

1859    ... 

15,630 

4S55 

922 

— 

260 

iSbo   ... 

15,870 

3803 

849 

40 

438 

1865 

19,009 

6858 

1479 

1069 

868 

i86b   ... 

21,725 

9326 

1772 

1632 

1563 

1867   ... 

23,006 

541 1 

1203 

1296 

2405 

i8C)8   ... 

28,020 

3487 

807 

407 

1725 

1869   ... 

20,474 

8800 

637 

696 

1843 

1870   ... 

20,648 

92 1 1 

626 

852 

3120 

1871 

23,390 

7379 

516 

1037 

2953 

The  aggregate  value  of  the  salmon  fisheries  in  1871  was 
estimated  by  the  Fishery  Commissioners  as  follows  : — 
Scotland,  i^20o,ooo  ;  Ireland,  ;^400,ooo  ;  England,  ^90,000. 

At  an  average  of  is.  2d.  per  lb.,  or  £y  per  box,  the 
value  of  the  34,457  boxes  sold  at  Billingsgate  in  1870  was 
^^241,199.  Besides  these  metropolitan  sales,  8600  boxes  of 
Irish  salmon  were  sold  in  the  midland  districts  of  England, 
2880  boxes  in  Dublin,  and  2107  boxes  and  31  baskets  sent 
to  Liverpool.  The  sales  at  Billingsgate  in  1871  were 
35,275  boxes,  weighing  1764  tons,  valued  at  ^246,925. 

The  average  annual  sale  of  salmon  in  London  may  be 
taken  to  be  ;{^2  50,000  in  value. 


The  Salmon  Fishery.  75 

The  main  bulk  of  the  salmon  caught  in  Scotland,  it 
appears,  is  sent  to  London  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  salmon 
caught  in  the  English  and  Welsh  rivers,  the  bulk  is  not  sent 
to  London,  but  to  the  large  towns  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  fisheries. 

The  salmon  fishery  in  Norway  is  interdicted  between 
the  14th  September  and  the  14th  February.  Besides  that 
which  is  smoked,  salted,  and  consumed  locally  fresh,  about 
250,000  lbs.  are  shipped  annually  to  England  in  ice,  and  a 
small  quantity  to  Berlin.  It  costs  fresh  about  sixpence  the 
pound,  and  the  annual  sales  reach  a  value  of  ^100,000. 
The  export  of  salted  salmon  is  from  lOOO  to  1200  barrels. 
Above  £7000  worth  of  salmon  was  shipped  from  Nor- 
way in  1869,  exclusively  for  British  account.  The  fish 
dealers,  who  come  over  in  fishing  smacks,  purchase  the 
fish  from  the  fishermen  as  brought  in,  put  the  fish  imme- 
diately in  ice,  and  despatch  the  article  to  the  London 
market  direct,  or  via  Grimsby. 

In  New  Brunswick  the  value  of  the  salmon  taken  is 
estimated  at  about  ^160,000  sterling. 

The  fishery  is  very  valuable.  As  many  as  40,000  salmon 
have  been  caught  in  the  course  of  a  season  at  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  John,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  sent  fresh  to  the 
United  States,  and  commands  remunerative  prices.  At  the 
entrance  to  the  Miramichi  400,000  lbs.  are  annually  put  up, 
"  preserved  "  for  export.  There  is  a  great  increase  in  the 
yield  of  salmon  in  consequence  of  their  protection  during 
the  spawning  season. 

Preserved  salmon  is  exported  from  British  Columbia  on 
a  large  scale,  and  bears  a  very  high  reputation.  In  1874 
there  was  barrelled  and  tinned  not  less  than  14,500,000 lbs., 
of  the  gross  value  of  ^400,000  sterling. 

The  catch  of  salmon  at  Oregon  in  1874  was  an  enormous 


76         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

one,  and  the  average  take  by  the  13  existing  preserving 
establishments  was  15,000  fish  per  night  for  26  nights.  It 
was  estimated  that  during  the  season  1,250,000  salmon 
were  taken,  weighing  on  an  average  16  lbs.  each,  of  which 
950,000  were  canned  fresh,  and  the  remainder  salted  and 
barrelled.  The  following  figures  give  an  approximate 
return,  for  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  precise  statistics  : — 


No.  of  fish 
tinned. 

Weight. 
lbs. 

Value. 

1872 

170,000 

2,700,000 

;^86,400 

1873     ■ 

360,000 

5,760,000 

168,000 

1874     ■ 

950,000 

..      14,400,000 

400,000 

In  the  last-named  year  250,000  salmon,  weighing  4,000,000 
lbs.,  were  salted.  Owing  to  the  enormous  increase  of  pro- 
duction, the  market  value  of  both  canned  and  salted  salmon 
has  been  much  lowered.  The  average  price  was  not  over 
6s.  per  dozen  i  lb.  cans. 

In  1876,  during  the  fishing  season,  18  establishments  on 
the  Lower  Columbia  river  put  up  428,730  cases  of  salmon. 
Of  these  over  400,000  cases  contained  four  dozen  i  lb.  tins, 
and  the  remainder  consisted  of  2  lb.  and  2\  lb.  tins.  Over 
100,000  cases  were  shipped  direct  from  Astoria  to  England 
in  the  first  three  months.  In  1877  the  total  catch  was 
378,325  cases.  The  total  exports  from  San  Francisco  by 
sea  to  Europe  and  the  colonies  were  170,887  cases  in  1876, 
and  160,982  cases  in  1877. 

Attempts  have  been  carried  on  for  many  years  past, 
which  have  been  attended  with  partial  success,  to  acclima- 
tize the  salmon  in  the  Australian  rivers,  and  considerable 
quantities  of  ova  have  also  been  sent  out  to  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   SARDINE   FISHERV. 

Derivation  of  the  name  "sardine" — Extent  of  the  French  fishery — ^Mode  of 
preparing  the  fish  for  market — Statistics  of  the  fisheries — Dried  sardines — 
The  anchovy — The  menhaden,  or  moss-bunker,  prepared  in  oil  in  America. 

The  purity  and  delicacy  of  the  little  fish  {Clnpca  sprattus^ 
Lin.)  which  haunts  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Mediterranean 
is  known  everywhere  ;  its  excellent  keeping  qualities,  when 
preserved  in  oil,  enabling  it  to  be  transported  for  an  indefi- 
nite distance.  It  has  nnuch  in  common  with  the  sprat  in 
flavour,  but  also  reminds  the  epicure  of  the  anchovy,  which 
is  also  common  on  the  Mediterranean  and  other  coasts  of 
France. 

There  are  sardines  and  sardines,  for  the  family  to  which 
this  fish  belongs  includes  the  whitebait,  the  sprat,  and  the 
pilchai-d.  As  they  were  chiefly  found  in  large  shoals  on 
the  coasts  of  Sardinia,  they  have  thence  derived  their 
popular  name,  and  this  has  also  been  incorporated  into  the 
specific  name  of  Clnpca  sardiiia,  Cuvier.  In  Italy,  how- 
ever, these  fish  are  known  as  "  sardella,"  and  the  anchovy 
as  "  sardon." 

The  sardine  fishery  is  eminently  French.  It  is  carried 
on  from  the  Gulf  of  Ga.scony  to  the  east.  Quitting  the 
Mediterranean,  where  they  are  born,  the  sardines,  on  the 


78        The  CommerciaC  Products  of  the  Sea. 

first  approach  of  fine  weather,  pass  in  great  shoals  along 
the  coast  of  Spain,  and  reach  that  of  France  about  May  or 
earlier.  In  Provence,  on  the  Mediterranean,  the  fishing, 
however,  commences  in  March  and  ends  in  June,  while  on 
the  coasts  of  Britanny  it  only  commences  in  July,  and 
finishes  early  in  October,  The  shoal  increases  as  it 
approaches  the  north,  hence  the  necessity  of  often 
changing  the  nature  of  the  wets  which  are  used  with 
fisheries. 

From  Douarnenez  to  Sables  d'Olonne  there  are  about 
2500  boats  employed  in  this  fishery.  Each  of  these  requires 
about  30  barrels  of  salted  cod  roe  for  bait  during  the  season, 
and  as  this  sometimes  runs  up  in  price  to  ;^4  and  £^  the 
barrel,  this  entails  a  very  heavy  outlay.  Besides  which, 
there  are  the  other  numerous  ports  of  Bordeaux,  Rochelle, 
Bayonne,  etc.,  to  be  supplied. 

Two  of  the  largest  stations  are  at  Douarnenez  and 
Concarneau.  Fleets  of  boats  go  out  some  five  miles  and 
.spread  out  their  nets,  by  the  side  of  which  some  cod-roe  is 
thrown  to  attract  the  fish.  The  nets  are  weighted  at  one 
end,  and  have  corks  attached  to  the  other,  so  that  they 
assume  a  vertical  position — two  nets  being  placed  close  to 
each  other,  that  the  fish  trying  to  escape  may  be  caught  in 
the  meshes.  The  fish  is  sold  all  over  France  (fresh  when 
it  is  possible)  half-salted,  or  salted  and  pressed  into  barrels, 
and  preserved  in  oil. 

Brought  to  land,  they  are  immediately  ofi'ered  for  sale, 
as  if  staler  by  a  few  hours  they  become  seriously  deterio- 
rated in  value  ;  no  first-class  manufacturer  coming  to  buy 
such.  They  are  sold  by  the  thousand.  The  curer  employs 
large  numbers  of  women,  who  cut  off  the  heads  of  the  fish, 
wash,  and  salt  them.  The  fish  are  then  dipped  into  boiling 
oil  for  a  few  minutes,  arranged  in  various-sized  tin  boxes 


The  Sardine  Fishery.  79 

filled  up  with  the  finest  olive  oil,  soldered  down,  and  placed 
in  boiling  water  for  some  time  to  test  the  boxes,  and  those 
which  leak  are  put  aside.  Women  burnish  the  tins,  the 
labels  are  put  on  or  sometimes  enamelled  on  the  tins, 
which  are  then  packed  in  wooden  cases,  generally  con- 
taining 100  tins,  and  are  then  ready  for  export.  It  does 
not  always  seem  to  be  remembered  that  the  longer  the  tin 
is  kept  unopened  the  more  mellow  do  the  fish  become  ;  and, 
if  properly  prepared,  age  improves  them  as  it  does  good 
wine  ;  but  if  they  are  too  salt  at  first,  age  does  not  benefit 
them — they  always  remain  tough.  The  sizes  of  the  tins  are 
known  as  half  and  quarter  tins.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
half  tins,  one  weighing  18  ounces,  and  the  other  16  ounces 
gross.  The  quarter  tin  usually  weighs  about  seven  ounces  ; 
but  there  are  larger  quarter  tins  sometimes  imported, 
which  tins  are  still  used  in  France,  but  seldom  seen  in 
England. 

Sardines  in  oil  form  the  most  important  branch  of  the 
trade.  It  has  become  immense,  and  employs  large  numbers 
of  people.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  shipment  of 
sardines  in  oil  from  France  was  not  above  ;i^24,ooo  in  value  ; 
but  in  the  last  10  years  it  has  ranged  from  ^^"500,000  to 
i^750,000,  according  to  the  abundance  of  the  fish.  About 
4500  boats,  regi.stering  some  10,000  tons,  are  engaged  in 
the  sardine  fishery. 

In  1866  the  value  of  the  French  sardine  fishery  was  a 
little  over  7,000,000  francs.  In  1873  it  reached  13,757,534 
francs,  and,  owing  to  the  abundant  catch,  the  price  fell  to 
15  francs  the  looo,  against  75  francs  the  1000  in  1872. 

In  some  years  the  sardines  are  most  plentiful;  in  others 
they  are  scarce.  At  Douarnenez  and  Concarneau,  the 
principal  centres,  884  boats  were  employed  in  1866;  and 
in    the    month    of   July    these    boats    caught    more    than 


8o         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

110,000,000  sardines,  the  sale  of  which  produced  707,648 
francs.  By  the  end  of  August  the  fish  were  so  abundant 
that  they  were  sold  as  low  as  \s.  6d.  the  1000,  a  thing  not 
known  for  10  years  previously. 

In  1873,  in  the  quarter  of  Auray,  the  sardine  fishery 
was  carried  on  by  239  boats.  The  catch  amounted  to 
43,170,000,  of  which  32,000,000  were  tinned,  io,i20,ooo 
were  pressed  or  salted,  and  the  rest  locally  consumed  or 
sent  into  the  interior. 

At  L'Orient  the  catch  was  valued  at  2,730,000  francs 
at    Douarnenez,    2,976,551    francs;  at  Quimper,    1,587,534 
francs;  Brest,  291,836 francs;  Morlaix,  48,145  francs.    Occa- 
sionally 115,000,000  sardines  have  been  caught  in  a  single 
season  on  the  French  coasts  of  the  ocean. 

The  French  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Finistere  and 
Morbihan  are  of  very  great  importance.  Large  quantities 
of  sardines,  mackerel,  and  lobsters  are  caught ;  and  close 
upon  181,000  fishermen  were  employed  during  1873.  In 
1871-72  the  quantity  of  sardines  caught  decreased,  but 
during  1873  the  catch  was  good.  The  value  of  preserved 
sardines  exported  alone  from  Brest  to  New  York  in  1S73 
was  ;^  5 6,640. 

Of  fresh  and  salt  water  fish  caught,  the  largest  propor- 
tion goes  by  railway  to  Paris.  During  the  year  1873  the 
fishing  stations  at  Douarnenez,  Audierne,  and  Guilvince 
(all  on  the  Finistere)  alone  sent  by  rail  to  Paris  more  than 
4000  tons  of  fresh  fish,  and,  strange  to  say,  it  can  be 
purchased  cheaper  in  Paris  than  fish  of  the  same  quality  at 
Brest  or  neighbouring  towns. 

The  sardine  frequents  the  bays  and  inlets  of  Gallicia  ; 
and  in  the  single  province  of  Pontevedra  there  are  more 
than  102  stations  occupied  in  salting  this  fish,  which  is 
carried  on  by  females.     In  1873,  5,000,000  lbs.  of  these  fish 


The  Sardine  Fishery.  8i 

were  shipped  to  Mediterranean  ports  and  the  Spanish 
West  Indies.  Very  few  are  preserved,  the  French  holding 
the  monopoly  of  this  trade.  The  fishery  is  carried  on  from 
July  to  February,  but  the  fish  are  in  the  best  condition  and 
most  abundant  in  November  and  December. 

Dried  sardines  ("  hosi-ka  ")  in  Japan  are  considered  a 
superior  manure,  but  the  price  is  often  too  high  for  poor 
cultivators  to  use  them.  These  small  fish  abound  in  some 
of  the  seas  around,  so  that  small  boats  can  hardly  make 
their  way  through  them.  They  are  caught  in  large  shoals 
to  extract  the  oil  from  them.  This  oil  is  used  for  burning 
by  the  lower  classes,  but  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  and 
gives  off  a  good  deal  of  black  dense  smoke.  The  residue, 
after  the  oil  is  extracted,  is  sold  for  manure.  A  cwt.  of 
this  manure  costs  about  3x.  6d. 

The  Anchovy  is  another  fish,  the  capture  and  cure  of 
which  gives  extensive  employment  on  the  French  Atlantic 
coast  and  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  value  of  the  fish 
caught  on  the  French  coasts  ranges  from  ^16,000  to 
^20,000  per  annum.  The  fishery  is  carried  on  from  May 
to  October.  After  gutting  and  removing  the  head,  they 
are  washed  and  simply  placed  in  barrels,  with  layers  of  salt, 
and  a  little  reddish  ochreous  earth  added  to  give  them  a 
colour. 

Anchovies  are  also  caught  and  salted  in  Norway,  the 
shipments  occasionally  reaching  20,000  kegs. 

The  Americans  have  begun  to  utilize  the  Menhaden,  or 
moss-bunker,  by  preserving  it  in  oil  like  the  French  sardines. 
This  fish  has  been  variously  named  Brcvortea  vicnJiadeu  and 
Alosa  menhaden.  The  objection  to  these  fish  for  general 
use  is  that  they  are  very  bony.  The  American  Sardine 
Company,  by  some  mechanical  process,  have  removed  this 
objection. 


82  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  preparation  these  fish  go  through  is  thus  described : 
— They  are  first  brought  to  the  scaler,  which  consists  of  a 
long  shaft,  on  which  are  twelve  wheels  filled  with  long 
blunt  teeth.  These  revolve  very  rapidly,  and  take  off  every 
scale  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time.  From  the 
scalers  they  are  passed  to  hands  who  chop  off  the  heads 
and  cut  out  the  entrails.  They  are  then  placed  in  the 
washing  troughs,  above  which  are  a  number  of  revolving 
circular  brushes,  by  contact  with  which  the  insides  are 
thoroughly  cleaned.  They  are  then  deposited  in  pickle 
vats,  where  they  remain  for  a  few  hours,  until  they  are 
sufficiently  salted  ;  after  which  they  are  spread  upon  large 
tables,  and  placed  in  cooking  cans.  They  are  then  taken 
to  tiie  steaming  tanks,  of  which  there  are  seven,  each 
having  a  capacity  for  holding  looo  boxes.  From  the 
steaming  cans,  they  are  again  taken  to  the  tables  and 
transferred  to  the  permanent  cans,  Avhen  they  are  oiled  and 
spiced,  and  then  handed  over  to  the  tinsmiths  to  be 
soldered.  The  time  from  the  fish  being  brought  to  the 
factory  until  they  are  boxed  and  labelled,  is  three  days. 

Now-these  fish  are  shipped  in  large  quantities  to  every 
part  of  the  States,  and  by  many  are  considered  quite 
equal  in  flavour  to  the  sardines  imported  from  France  to 
Italy. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   TUNNY   FISHERY. 

Tunny  fishery  in  the  Mediterranean — Size  the  fish  attains — Description  of  a 
"  madrague  " — Statistics  of  the  Itahan  fishery — Definition  of  terms  used — 
Scabeccio,  or  tunny  preserved  in  oil — Salted  tunny — Fishery  at  Tunis  and 
Algeria. 

The  tunny  {Thyiinus  vulgaris^  Cuv.)  is  a  common  fish  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  has  been  known  and  celebrated 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  Mediterranean  is,  of  all 
the  seas,  that  least  abundant  in  variety  of  fish,  only  nourish- 
ing about  440  species. 

In  Sicily  the  tunny  forms  one  of  the  most  considerable 
branches  of  the  commerce  of  the  island.  In  France  it  is 
much  used,  and  is  cooked  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  is 
frequently  taken  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  must  be  con- 
sidered a  wanderer  from  more  southern  latitudes,  and  is 
there  known  by  its  popular  name  of  "  horse  mackerel  and 
albicore."     In  America  its  flesh  is  not  held  in  estimation. 

On  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  it  is  found  in 
great  abundance,  and  forms  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
wealth  of  the  seaside  population.  The  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  eaten  both  fresh  and  salted.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  Italian  countries,  pickled  in  various 
ways,  boiled  down  in  soups,  and  made  into  pies,  which  are 
thought   to   be  very  excellent,  and  possess  the  valuable 


84         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

property  of  remaining  good  for  nearly  two  months.  The 
different  parts  of  the  fish  are  called  by  appropriate  names, 
and  are  said  to  resemble  beef,  veal,  and  pork. 

The  shape  of  the  tunny  is  not  unlike  the  mackerel,  but 
it  is  larger,  rounder,  and  has  a  shorter  snout.  The  general 
average  length  is  about  four  feet,  but  sometimes  it  attains 
a  length  of  10  or  12  feet.  One  was  recently  caught  in  a 
mackerel  net  off  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  exhibited  by 
Eugene  Blackford,  at  Fulton  market,  New  York  city,  that 
weighed  over  700  lbs.,  and  was  14  ft.  10  in,  in  length. 
De  Kay,  in  his  work,  mentions  one  that  was  taken  near 
Cape  Ann  that  weighed  about  lOOO  lbs.  These  are  the 
largest  tunny  fish  caught  in  America  of  which  we  have 
any  information. 

In  May  and  June  the  tunnies  move  in  vast  shoals  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  seeking  for  suitable  places 
to  deposit  their  spawn.  They  a»2  seen  by  sentinels,  who 
are  on  the  watch,  and  nets  are  prepared  for  their  capture. 
These  nets  are  of  two  kinds,  one  a  common  seine  and  the 
other  called  a  "  madrague."  The  outer  portions  of  the 
madrague  intercept  the  fish,  and  on  their  endeavouring  to 
retreat  they  are  forced  to  enter  one  of  many  chambers. 
They  are  thus  driven  from  one  chamber  to  another  until 
they  arc  forced  into  the  last  and  smallest,  which  is  signifi- 
cantly called  the  "  chamber  of  death."  This  chamber  is 
furnished  wath  a  floor  of  net,  to  which  are  attached  a 
series  of  ropes,  so  that  by  hauling  on  the  ropes  the  floor 
is  drawn  up  and  the  fish  brought  to  the  surface.  They 
struggle  fiercely  for  liberty,  but  are  speedily  stunned  by 
blows  from  long  poles,  and  lifted  into  boats.  PVom  5000 
to  6000  tons  of  tunny  fish  have  been  shipped  in  some 
years  from  Elba. 

The  tunny  fisheries,  which  supply  the  labouring  popu- 


The   Tiuiny  Fishery.  85 

lation  of  the  Sicilian  coasts  during-  the  summer  months 
with  employment  and  food,  generally  yield  more  than 
enough  for  home  consumption.  The  surplus,  preserved 
in  oil  or  salt,  forms,  together  with  anchovies,  sardines,  and 
sturgeons,  a  considerable  article  of  export  from  Sicily.  In 
1866  the  fishery  carried  on  in  the  "parages"  of  the  Isle  of 
St.  Pierre,  situate  on  the  south  coast  of  Sardinia,  yielded 
15,850  tunny  fish,  weighing  nearly  3,000,000  lbs.,  and 
approximately  valued  locally  at  i^5 1,000.  In  1869  the 
shipments  amounted  in  value  to  about  ^25,000,  in  1S70  to 
;!{^22,ooo,  and  in  1871  to  about  i^3 5,000.  This  fish  is 
exported  to  England,  the  north  of  Europe,  to  Italy,  and 
also  to  Greece  and  Turkey. 

The  fishery  occasionally  employs  at  Palermo  1000  boats 
and  3500  men. 
'  The  produce  of  the  tunny  fishery  at  Caloforte,  Italy,  in 


187 

4  was  : — 

Kilogrammes. 

Franc?. 

Tunny  in  oil 

301,000 

...       590,400 

,,       salted 

18,400 

9,800 

Eggs  and  entrails    . . 

22,230 

24,200 

Tunny  oil... 

30,850 

36,000 

372,480  660,400 

The  value  of  the  fishery  in  1873  was  as  high  as  4,248:700 
francs  (about  i^  170,000). 

The  tunny  fishery  of  1875  from  Cagliari,  though  better 
than  that  of  1874,  was  below  the  average  yield,  the  value 
of  the  products  not  reaching  1,000,000  francs. 

The  exports  of  tunny  fish  salted  and  pickled  from 
Sardinia  in  twelve  years  were  as  follows  : — 

lbs. 
3  years  ending  1854   ...      ...      ...  3,777,280 

,,      1S57   ...      ...      ...  7,596,904 

„      1S60   ...      ...      ...  3,493,013 

M      1S63   ...      ...      ...  2,152,453 


86         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

For  the  last  seven  or  eight  years  the  "  matanzas,"  or 
takes  of  tunny,  at  Tunis  have  proved  very  equal  and  good. 
Were  the  fish  to  exceed  14,000  in  one  season,  they  would  be 
beyond  the  preserving  and  curing  capabilities  of  the  estab- 
lishment. The  nets  are  laid  jutting  out  to  sea  for  upwards 
of  a  mile,  and  are  so  placed  as  to  form  several  chambers  ; 
the  outer  compartments  are  made  of  esparto  grass-rope 
nets,  of  very  large  meshes,  which  gradually  decrease  in 
size  as  the  "  corpo,"  or  slaughtering  compartment,  is  ap- 
proached. The  nets  in  this  part  are  made  of  the  finest 
hempen  cordage. 

The  tunny,  in  their  annual  spring  migration  from  the 
ocean  to  the  Archipelago  and  the  Black  Sea,  follow  either 
the  southern  or  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in  all 
their  windings.  A  tonnara  is  so  constructed  off  a  promon- 
tory or  headland  as  to  offer  an  obstruction  to  the  fish,  which, 
in  endeavouring  to  avoid  it,  enter  compartment  after  com- 
partment. Their  migratory  instinct  is  so  strong,  that  they 
never  appear  tempted  to  retrace  their  course,  but  always 
endeavour  to  find  a  way  out  towards  the  east,  which  is 
barred  to  them. 

On  a  sufficient  number  of  tunny  fish  being  noted  in  the 
"  corpo,"  a  net  is  lowered  at  its  entrance,  and  the  net, 
which  forms  the  bottom  of  it,  is  gradually  drawn  up 
towards  the  surface,  so  as  to  bring  the  fish  within  the  reach 
of  the  men,  the  majority  of  whom,  about  160  in  number, 
are  in  two  immense  lighters,  armed  with  harpoons  and 
boat-hooks,  by  means  of  which  the  tunny  are  killed  and 
drawn  into  the  barges.  A  few  of  the  men  are  also  in  small 
boats  in  the  centre  of  the  enclosure.  As  many  as  700  fish 
are  occasionally  secured  in  a  single  "  matanza,"  but  more 
usually  from  400  to  500.  From  30  to  35  days  are  ex- 
pended in  laying  down  the  nets  and  otherwise  preparing 
for  work. 


The  Ttiimy  Fishery.  87 

The  first  "  matanza  "  of  the  season  generally  takes  place 
about  the  loth  of  May,  and  the  last  on  the  30th  of  June, 
or  thereabouts.  To  secure  the  high  prices  of  an  early 
market,  the  first  "  matanza  "  is  hastened  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  takes  place  if  even  200,  or  only  150,  tunny  have 
entered  the  "  corpo." 

The  fish  are  killed  and  landed  in  the  morning,  and 
allowed  to  drain  until  the  evening,  when  they  are  cleaned 
and  cut  up.  The  "  scabeccio  " — tunny  preserved  in  oil — 
is  boiled  for  an  hour,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  and  dry, 
when  it  is  quickly  packed  in  barrels  already  prepared  for 
its  reception,  and  about  a  third  of  a  "metal  "  of  oil  (if  im- 
perial gallon)  is  poured  into  each  barrel,  great  care  being 
taken  that  it  should  permeate  the  whole  contents,  and  that 
no  vacuum  should  exist  when  closed.  The  same  process  is 
observed  for  the  tunny  preserved  in  tin  cans,  only  that  the 
air  is  more  thoroughly  excluded  and  exhausted  by  steam 
power.  The  operation  of  salting  the  fish  is  more  expe- 
ditious, for,  whilst  the  "  scabeccio  "  to  be  prepared  requires 
from  four  to  five  days,  the  salting  takes  but  a  day  or  a  day 
and  a  half  The  oil  extracted  from  tunny  is  much  used  by 
curriers  and  in  the  tanning  trade,  and  is  extracted  from  the 
heads,  dorsal  and  other  bones,  and  refuse,  the  whole  being 
placed  in  an  immense  cauldron,  capable  of  holding  800 
heads  and  400  skeletons  at  a  time,  and  allowed  to  boil  for 
24  hours.  The  bones  after  boiling  are  subjected  to  com- 
pression in  powerful  presses,  and  thus  but  little  of  the  oil 
they  contain  is  lost. 

In  a  good  season  the  Sidi  Daud  fishery,  Tunis,  furnishes 
from  10,000  to  14,000  tunny,  but  they  vary  considerably  in 
size  from  one  year  to  another.  In  1870  the  fish  were  larger 
than  those  of  1871,  although  some  of  the  tunny  caught 
measured  eight  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  four  feet  in 


88         The  Commejxial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

diameter  at  the  neck,  the  widest  part  of  the  body.  From 
2000  to  3000  fish  are  sufficient  to  pay  the  whole  of  the 
expenses  of  a  season.  The  average  yield  is  for  looo  fish 
to  produce  120  barrels  of  "scabeccio." 

In  1871,  3200  barrels  of  "  scabeccio  "  were  made,  and 
sold  at  more  than  £6  \os.  the  100  kilogrammes ;  and 
90,000  kilogrammes  of  tunny  were  put  up  in  tin  cans,  which 
realized  more  than  £^  the  100  kilogrammes.  Eight  thousand 
barrels  of  salted  fish  were  sold  at  about  £\  /\s.  per  barrel  ; 
and  40,000  kilogrammes  of  oil  (65,460  imperial  gallons) 
produced  more  than  ;^40  the  1000  kilogrammes.  Two 
thousand  "metals"  (about  10,250  imperial  gallons)  of  the 
best  olive  oil  were  expended  in  the  preservation  of  the 
above  quantities  of  fish. 

Very  few  of  the  fish  are  sent  in  a  fresh  state  to  the 
Tunis  market ;  about  50  only  are  presented  by  the  pro- 
prietor to  the  Bey,  local  and  foreign  authorities,  and  other 
Tunisian  officials.  The  roes,  milts,  hearts,  sounds,  and  all 
other  coarse  parts  of  the  fish  are  the  perquisites  of  the 
fishermen,  and  are  preserved  and  sold  on  their  own  account. 
The  roes  are  chiefly  sent  to  Italy,  and  are  there  sold  at 
from  2s.  6d.  to  ^s.  the  pair.  Upwards  of  200  barrels  of 
inferior  parts  of  tunny  were  salted  on  account  of  the  men 
in  1 87 1. 

It  appears,  moreover,  that  the  demand  for  preserved 
tunny  is  at  present  limited  to  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediteranean,  and  the  ten  tonnaras  in  Sicily,  one  in 
Calabria,  six  in  Sardinia,  and  one  or  two  in  France,  Spain, 
and  other  parts  of  Italy,  produce  sufficient  for  actual 
requirements.  In  Germany  tunny  is  beginning  to  be 
known  and  called  for,  but  it  took  six  months  last  year  to 
dispose  of  200  tin  boxes  that  were  sent  to  England  as 
a  commercial  experiment.     Nevertheless  the  best  qualities 


The    Tunny  Fishery.  89 

of  tunny  only  require  to  be  better  known  in  England  to  be 
highly  appreciated.  1870  and  1871  proved  disastrous 
seasons  for  the  Italian  tonnaras,  the  tunny  fish  having, 
unaccountably,  almost  entirely  failed  to  make  their  accus- 
tomed appearance,  and  the  two  most  famed  tonnaras  of 
Trapani  only  secured  2000  fish  each  in  1871,  whilst  others 
were  forced  to  break  up  their  establishments  from  want  of 
success,  before  the  season  was  half  over. 

Tunny  fish  preserved  in  oil  (" scabeccio  ")  is  much  used; 
the  price  is  about  £t^  ^s.  the  cwt,  and  the  produce  of  the 
fishing  in  1871  was — 


Scabeccio  preserved,  in  barrels 

••■    £^o,yJ> 

Salted  tunny 

10,200 

Scabeccio  in  tin  cans 

7,200 

Tunny  oil  ... 

1,600 

The  export  of  tunny  fish  from  Tunis  in  1873  was  :  — 

Salted,  to  the  value  of ...  ...  ..     £bi,^ 

Pickled  in  oil  ...  ...  ...      4S13 

This  fishery  might  be  profitably  carried  on  in  Algeria. 
Arzeu  has  one  small  madrague,  where  on  some  days  as 
many  as  300  tunny  fish  have  been  taken.  400  or  500 
persons  could  be  profitably  occupied  in  this  fishing.  A 
madrague  established  at  Sidi  Feruch,  or  at  Cape  Matefou, 
would  give  during  the  season,  at  each  lift  of  the  nets  (an 
operation  which  might  be  renewed  several  times  during  the 
week),  300  or  400  tunny  fish,  weighing  from  60  lbs.  to 
600  lbs.  It  might  be  salted  or  marinated,  and  as  this  fish 
will  keep  fresh  for  a  week,  it  might  be  shipped  to  supply 
the  Marseilles  market.  It  could  only  be  carried  on  during 
the  months  of  March  to  June. 


90         The  Coimnercial  Ptvdncis  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

CRUSTACEA. 

Useful  or  food-supplying  Crustacea — The  lobster — The  British  fisher}' — Size  to 
which  lobsters  grow— Technical  names  by  which  they  are  sold  in  Billings- 
gate— Supply  of  crabs — Ciab-pots — Lobster  fishery  in  America— Change 
of  colour  in  boiling — Statistics  of  the  trade  in  canning  lobsters,  etc. — 
The  Norway  lobster  fishery. 

Among  the  Crustacea  we  have  the  useful  or  food- 
supplying  kinds,  such  as  the  boiled  lobster  and  the  canned 
or  tinned  lobster ;  the  edible  crabs  of  the  market,  used  for 
food,  and  the  king-crab  for  manure  ;  large  prawns,  used 
in  place  of  the  lobster  on  the  west  coast  of  America  ;  those 
sold  in  the  markets  of  Europe,  at  New  York,  and  the  east 
and  south  coasts  of  America  ;  the  smaller  shrimps  and 
prawns,  held  in  esteem  by  various  nations,  and  many  of 
which  serve  for  bait.  The  liquid  fat  of  the  hermit-crab 
iPagiiriis  sp),  under  the  name  of  "  manteca  de  ladron,"  is 
used  in  Venezuela  to  cure  laxations  of  the  bowels. 

The  shell  of  the  king-crab  {Linnilits polyphevms)  is  used 
on  the  American  coasts  as  a  boat-bailer. 

Of  the  crustaceans,  the  lobster  is  that  which  is  most  in 
demand,  although  the  more  common  crab  is,  of  the  two, 
most  digestible  and  nourishing.  But  the  lobster  has  always 
been  held  in  estimation  as  a  food  delicacy,  and  from  being 
so  sought  for,  leads  to  a  very  extensive  commerce.    Besides 


Crustacea.  91 

the  British  supplies — of  which  we  have  no  very  reliable 
returns — the  bulk  of  our  imports  come  from  Norway  and 
Sweden,  and  it  maybe  interesting  to  glance  at  the  statistics 
of  the  trade  generally. 

The  British  Fishery. — Lobsters  are  brought  to  Greenock 
in  large  numbers  from  the  western  islands,  chiefly  from  Skye, 
in  boxes  containing  from  four  to  five  dozen,  and  are  there 
transferred,  for  facility  and  economy  of  carriage  by  rail,  to 
tea  chests,  into  each  of  which  from  50  to  100  fish,  according 
to  size,  are  carefully  packed,  and  forwarded  regularly  and 
in  large  quantities  in  this  way  to  Liverpool,  Manchester, 
Birmingham,  and  London,  in  each  of  which  towns  is  located 
a  branch  of  a  great  firm — originally  of  Aberdeen — to  whom 
are  continually  consigned  enormous  quantities  offish  from  all 
parts  of  the  coast.  Much  more  might  be  done  on  the  coasts 
of  the  British  Islands  in  the  matter  of  lobsters,  especially  in 
Ireland.  In  a  report  on  the  Irish  Fisheries,  it  was  stated 
that — "  Lobsters  may  be  taken  in  any  quantity ;  20,000 
or  30,000  a  week  might  be  easily  captured  on  about  20 
miles  of  the  coast  of  Clifden,  Bufifen  Island,  and  Bunown, 
but  the  people  have  no  means  of  taking  them.  They  only 
fish  close  to  the  shore,  and  large  lobsters  cannot  go  into  the 
pots  used.  Those  of  five  or  six  pounds  or  eight  or  nine 
pounds  weight  are  only  taken  by  clinging  to  the  sides  of 
the  pots  ;  and  if  the  fishermen  had  boats  sufficient  to  go 
out  to  the  rocks  seven  or  eight  miles  off,  they,  with  proper 
gear,  would  take  the  finest  fish  in  the  world,  and  in  the 
greatest  quantities.  They  may  be  had  in  season  every  day 
in  the  year  that  men  could  venture  out  to  set  the  pots,  but 
they  never  do  so  in  the  winter."  The  size  and  age  to  which 
lobsters  sometimes  attain  was  evidenced  by  one  caught  a 
few  years  ago  in  Plymouth  Sound  in  a  trawl  net,  which  was 
reported  in  the  Fie/d  of  June  2nd.    Its  length  was,  from  the 


92         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

tip  of  the  claws  to  end  of  tail,  3  ft.  2  in.;  weight,  15  lbs.  2^oz. 
Several  small  oysters,  mussels,  and  barnacles  were  adhering 
to  the  shell,  and  it  was  supposed  to  be  100  years  old,  although 
what  grounds  there  were  for  the  assumption  were  not  stated. 

Crabs  and  lobsters  are  supplied  to  the  London  market 
from  the  east,  south,  and  west  coasts  of  England,  from 
Cornwall  and  the  Channel  Islands.  The  crayfish  nearly 
all  come  from  Sennen  Cove,  near  the  Land's  End,  and  the 
greater  part  of  these  are  sent  to  France.  The  crabs  received 
from  Dunbar  are  very  small,  som.e  of  them  not  more  than 
three  inches  across  ;  they  are  called  in  the  market  "  Dunbar 
bugs."  Very  small  crabs  are  also  receiv^ed  from  Scar- 
borough ;  one  dealer  in  the  season  receives  about  20  barrels 
per  day,  each  barrel  containing  200.  After  paying  ex- 
penses and  carriage,  it  is  calculated  that  the  fishermen  can 
only  realize  4J-.  for  200  crabs,  and  20s.  for  100  lobsters. 
Crabs  are  much  wanted  for  the  seaside  markets  in  August 
and  September. 

Lobsters  are  sold  in  Billingsgate  by  curious  ancient 
terms,  viz.,  a  "worst  Nancy,"  which  equals  40  small  lobsters; 
a  "  best  Nancy,"  which  is  40  lobsters  of  a  larger  size. 
According  to  sizes  above  this,  lobsters  are  sold  by  a  "  best 
Double,"  a  Score,  and  a  Ten. 

The  supply  of  crabs  to  London  has  diminished  more 
than  half,  both  in  size  and  number.  Many  crabs  come 
from  the  West  of  England,  Cornwall,  and  Devon.  The  price 
has  gone  up  fully  30  per  cent. ;  a  crab  eight  or  ten  years 
ago  worth  2s.  is  now  worth  3^.  6d.  The  sale  for  crabs 
begins  to  fall  off  in  October,  and  does  not  begin  again  till 
March.  The  chief  time  for  the  sale  of  crabs  and  lobsters 
is  May,  June,  July,  and  August.  In  winter  the  crabs  are 
watery.  Crabs  and  lobsters  are  in  best  condition  in  warm 
weather. 


Crustacea.  93 

The  crabs  at  Cromer  and  the  neighbourhood  are  counted 
by  a  peculiar  standard.  Thus,  two  crabs  are  counted  as 
one,  the  two  crabs  being  called  "a  cast;"  six  score  of  crabs 
is  called  a  hundred  ;  therefore  lOO  crabs  is  strictly  240. 

There  are  about  50  boats,  each  worked  by  two  men, 
used  by  the  Cromer  fishermen.  Each  boat  would  set  from 
30  to  35  pots.  These  crab-pots  cost  about  8j.  A  good 
catch  for  a  boat  in  two  tides'  fishing  would  be  about  180 
crabs.  Supposing  the  50  boats  had  good  luck,  they  would 
catch  about  9000  crabs  a  day.  Sizeable  crabs  are  sold  in 
the  Norwich  and  London  markets  at  the  average  of  50^. 
the  long  hundred,  or  nearly  3^.  each.  At  Sherningham 
there  are  about  100  crab  boats,  and  each  boat  has  about 
20  pots. 

The  crab-pots  are  set  out  to  sea  from  the  foreshore  to 
.  the  distance  of  about  two  miles.     The  extent  of  the  united 
Cromer  and  Sherningham  crab  fisheries  is  about  eight  and 
a  quarter  miles  long  by  two  wide. 

The  crab-pots  are  made  of  a  cage  of  thick,  strong 
netting,  fastened  across  bows  of  iron  or  wood.  This  cage 
is  I  ft.  9  in.  long,  and  i  ft.  3  in.  across  the  bottom.  The 
crabs  enter  the  pots  through  two  funnel-shaped  doors, 
which  act  on  the  principle  of  a  mouse-trap  ;  a  side  door 
can  easily  be  let  down,  and  the  crabs  removed.  The  bait 
used  for  catching  crabs  are  flat-fish,  usually  called  "  butts." 
The  small  crabs  called  "  toggs "  are  also  much  used, 
smashed  up,  for  bait,  and  are  sold  in  large  quantities, 
scarcely  fetching  a  penny  each  retail,  to  the  great  injury 
of  the  fishery. 

The  crab  and  lobster  fisheries  of  Ireland  continue  to  be 
pretty  productive  ;  but  with  a  view  to  their  better  preserva- 
tion, regulations  have  been  laid  down,  limiting  the  size  of 
crabs  to  be  taken  to  five  inches  in  length  across  the  back  at 


94  The  Commeixial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

their  greatest  measurement,  and  lobsters  to  nine  inches  from 
the  end  of  the  tail  to  what  is  usually  called  the  tip  of  the 
beak. 

Lobsters  used  to  be  taken  in  great  numbers  near  the 
village  of  Usan,  near.  Montrose,  and  60,000  or  70,000  were 
sent  annually  to  London,  and  sold  at  the  rate  of  2\d.  apiece, 
provided  they  were  five  inches  round  the  body;  if  less,  two 
were  allowed  for  one.  The  home  supply  of  lobsters  is  not 
now,  however,  so  large  as  the  foreign  supply. 

The  supply  to  London  has  fallen  off  very  much  these 
last  few  years  ;  the  price  has  risen  considerably,  as  com- 
pared to  what  it  was  formerly;  the  scarcity  is  beginning 
to  be  felt.  Lobsters  arrive  in  London  from  Scotland, 
Southampton  (where  they  are  kept  alive),  Norway,  Sweden, 
Ireland,  and  France.  The  Norway  lobsters  are  considered 
very  good,  and  so  are  those  from  the  Orkneys. 

The  lobster  is  never  so  good  as  when  in  the  condition 
of  a  berried  hen.  Berried  hens  occur  most  frequently  in 
April,  May,  and  June.  They  begin  to  lose  their  berries 
or  eggs  about  July,  but  still  many  berried  hens  occur  in 
July.  The  use  of  the  berries  is  almost  entirely  devoted  to 
cooking  ;  they  are  used  in  many  preparations  by  the  West- 
End  cooks,  especially  for,  the  colouring  and  enriching  of 
sauces.  The  "  chefs "  are  also  fond  of  coral  out  of  the 
body  of  the  lobster. 

Occasionally,  in  the  month  of  May,  as  much  as  six 
ounces  of  berries  will  be  taken  from  a  lobster  weighing 
three  to  three  pounds  and  a  half.  There  are  about  6720 
eggs  in  an  ounce  of  lobster  spawn. 

The  Norwegian  lobsters  are  best  in  season  in  May 
to  August  ;  the  Scotch  lobsters  begin  to  fall  off  in  August. 
The  shell  of  the  Scotch  lobster  is  thick,  and  when  boiled  is 
of  a  dark  colour,  and   covered  with  white   specks.      The 


Crustacea.  95 

shell  of  the  Norwegian  oyster  is  thin,  and  of  a  bright  red 
colour. 

The  Lobster  Fishery  of  America. — Lobster  fishing  has 
been  followed  at  Marshfield  and  Plymouth,  Massachusetts, 
for  30  years  and  more.  From  50,000  to  100,000  lobsters 
are  taken  annually,  and  sold  to  the  smacks  for  the  Boston 
market,  and  to  pedlars  for  the  inland. 

On  the  North  American  coasts  a  large  trade  is  done 
in  putting  up  lobsters  in  tins.  For  some  years  past  the 
packing-houses  of  Portland,  Maine,  have  shipped  lobsters 
in  tins  to  England  in  ever-increasing  quantites.  The  taste 
thus  acquired  has  created  a  demand  for  the  article  in  a 
fresh  and  more  palatable  state.  To  supply  this  demand, 
the  Portland  firm  of  Marston  and  Sons,  extensive  dealers, 
conceived  the  idea  of  shipping  live  lobsters  by  the  British 
steamers  which  ply  between  Liverpool  and  that  port.  The 
efforts  made  in  that  direction  have  not,  however,  been  very 
successful,  the  number  transported  which  reached  their 
destination  alive  being  very  small.  The  packing  of  lobsters 
in  America  has  become  so  enormous  that,  at  the  present 
rate  of  canning,  serious  apprehensions  are  felt  in  some 
quarters  that  the  supply  will  not  last  many  years  longer. 
A  few  years  ago  it  was  not  uncommon  to  catch  lobsters 
weighing  from  10  to  20  pounds  each  ;  now  the  average 
is  from  three  to  six  pounds,  and  growing  less,  thousands 
which  are  caught  weighing  but  little  over  one  pound  each. 

Quite  a  fleet  of  small  vessels  is  employed  in  this 
important  branch  of  commercial  industry.  The  Americans 
having  almost  denuded  their  own  coast  of  this  useful  and 
valuable  crustacean,  are  now  busy  fishing  for  it  on  the 
British  Atlantic  coasts. 

Prior  to  the  year  1869,  no  mention  is  made  in  the 
Canadian  Fishery  reports  of  the  yield  of  lobsters. 


96         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

In  that  year  52,400  one-pound  cans  or  tins  were  put  up 
in  Nova  Scotia.  In  1870  the  quantity  preserved  was  more 
than  ten  times  as  great,  namely,  553,000  cans,  valued  at 
about  ']\d.  each.  In  1871  the  quantity  preserved  in  that 
province  rose  to  905,500  tins.  In  the  next  two  years  the 
export  trade  had  wonderfully  increased,  yet  the  wholesale 
price  ran  up  to  \s.  per  tin. 

The  whole  quantity  preserved  in  Nova  Scotia  was 
returned  at — 


Tins. 

Value. 

1872     ... 

...      2,422,508 

...    ;^I2I,II5 

1873    ... 

...      3,462,298         ... 

...        173.II5 

In  New  Brunswick  only  38,500  cans  were  put  up  in 
1869;  in  1871  the  quantity  had  increased  to  224,000 
tins,  and  in  the  two  subsequent  years  the  advance  was  as 
follows  : — 

Tins.  Value 

1872        1,055,485        ^27,740 

1873        1,387,700        69,400 

The  business  of  "  canning "  lobsters  is  annually  ex- 
tending, and  threatens  the  annihilation  of  the  beds,  but 
it  is  now  proposed  that  no  lobsters  shall  be  taken  with  the 
eggs  attached,  or  weighing  less  than  one  pound  and  a 
half.  By  this  means  the  destruction  will,  it  is  hoped,  be 
limited,  and  the  same  error  which  was  committed  in  the 
case  of  the  salmon  fisheries  prevented. 

In  1873  more  than  4,000,000  one-pound  tins  of  lobsters 
Avere  sent  from  British  North  America  into  the  markets  of 
the  world.  In  1874  the  value  of  the  lobsters  preserved 
was  ;^203,ooo,  besides  the  fresh  ones  sent  to  the  United 
States,  valued  at  ^^  24,000. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  they  are  so 
plentiful  that,  notwithstanding  their  increased  commercial 


Crustacea.  97 

value  since  the  foundation  of  this  new  industry,  good 
marketable  lobsters  are  used  to  manure  the  fields. 

The  proprietor  of  a  large  establishment  at  Shippagaw 
writes:  "The  heavy  gale  of  August,  1873,  drove  more 
lobsters  ashore  within  five  miles  of  my  packing-houses  than 
I  could  make  use  of  during  the  whole  summer.  They 
formed  a  row  of  from  one  to  five  feet  deep,  and  I  should 
estimate  them  at  an  average  of  looo  to  every  two  rods  of 
shore." 

Lobsters  are  taken  in  wicker  baskets,  called  lobster-pots. 
These  are  about  three  feet  long  and  two  feet  wide,  of  a 
semi-cylindrical  form  ;  that  is,  the  bottom  flat,  and  the 
sides  and  top  in  the  form  of  an  arch.  At  each  end  is  an 
opening  for  the  ingress  of  the  lobster  ;  around  this  opening 
are  placed  short,  flexible  pieces  of  wood,  projecting  into 
the  basket,  so  arranged  that  they  will  easily  separate  and 
allow  the  lobster  to  enter,  but  their  points  close  together 
after  him  and  prevent  his  egress.  They  have  a  door  upon 
the  top,  through  which  the  lobster  is  taken  out.  A  long 
line  is  attached  to  these  pots  ;  a  heavy  stone,  sufiicient  to 
sink  it,  is  placed  inside.  They  are  baited  with  the  heads 
or  offal  of  fresh  fish,  and  sunk  to  the  bottom  at  about  low- 
water  mark  ;  the  other  end  of  the  line  is  made  fast  to  a 
block  of  light  wood,  called  a  buoy.  The  fishermen  go  out 
with  their  wherries  freighted  with  these  pots,  and  drop 
them  at  short  intervals  along  the  shore.  During  the  season 
of  lobster  fishing,  which  lasts  from  March  to  July  in 
America,  hundreds  of  these  buoys  may  be  seen  bobbing  up 
and  down  like  so  many  seals'  heads.  The  fishermen  visit 
them  every  morning,  draw  them  up  alongside  of  their 
boats,  take  out  the  lobsters,  replenish  the  bait,  and  drop 
them  again  into  the  water.  The  lobsters,  when  first  taken, 
are  very  fierce,  and  seize  with  their  strong  pincers  upon 


98         The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

whatever  may  be  within  their  reach.  When  thrown  to- 
gether in  the  boat,  they  will  grapple  and  tear  off  each  other's 
feelers  and  legs.  Without  much  care  in  handling  them  the 
fingers  of  the  fishermen  get  many  a  hard  bite.  To  prevent 
them  from  injuring  each  other,  the  fishermen  provide  sharp- 
pointed  wooden  pegs,  which  they  insert  into  the  joint  or 
hinge  of  their  pincers ;  this  prevents  them  from  closing. 
When  they  have  visited  all  their  pots  they  row  to  their 
landing-place.  If  they  now  wish  to  preserve  them  for 
several  days,  they  put  them  into  a  long  box  or  kennel,  made 
of  plank,  and  bored  full  of  holes,  which  is  moored  in  the 
water  at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore.  If  they  wish  to 
prepare  them  immediately  for  market,  they  are  taken  ashore 
in  hand-barrows  and  carried  to  a  sort  of  shed,  in  which  is 
fixed  a  large  cauldron  in  which  they  are  boiled. 

The  cause  of  the  change  of  colour  in  the  crustaceans 
after  boiling  has  been  investigated  by  several  scientific 
inquirers.  It  is  found  to  be  due  to  two  or  three  pigments, 
scarlet,  blue,  and  green.  The  lobster,  crayfish,  and  crab 
take  a  vermilion  hue  ;  the  prawn  acquires  a  bright  rose 
colour,  and  the  grey  shrimp  a  slight  rose  tint,  bordering 
on  violet. 

There  are  now  about  6"/  canning  establishments  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  which  use  up  from  three 
to  five  tons  each  per  day  in  the  season,  which  lasts  from  four 
to  six  months,  making  a  total  annual  destruction  of  at  least 
30,000  tons.  Every  season  the  number  of  canning  estab- 
lishments is  increasing,  and  of  course  the  destruction  will 
increase  proportionately.  As  no  supply,  however  large,  can 
stand  a  ceaseless  and  increasing  drain,  unless  means  are 
taken  to  supply  the  waste,  it  is  evident  that  this  valuable 
supply  must  soon  become  exhausted  by  over-fishing. 

The  whole   of  the  edible  part  of  the   lobster   is   not 


Crustacea.  99 

utilized  by  the  curers,  who  say  that  the  trouble  of  picking 
out  the  flesh  from  the  claws  is  too  great,  and  that  lobsters 
are  too  cheap  to  make  it  worth  while  to  go  to  the  expense 
of  this  slight  additional  labour. 

Lobster  Fishery  in  Norivay,  etc. — There  are  many  other 
countries  where  the  business  of  preserving  lobsters  in  tins 
might  be  profitably  carried  on  —  Norway  for  example. 
From  the  port  of  Stromstad,  in  Sweden,  about  50,000  are 
also  sent  annually  to  England. 

The  Norway  lobster  is  the  Ncphrops  Norvegicus.  This 
crustacean  is  caught  in  the  fiords  from  the  southern  ex- 
tremity up  to  the  Lofoden  Islands  ;  but  it  has  been 
noticed  for  some  years  that  there  is  a  tendency  in  the 
lobster  to  keep  more  towards  the  north,  where  they  are 
found  of  larger  size.  They  are  often  taken  by  means  of  a 
common  cask,  the  bottom  of  which  is  replaced  by  boughs, 
and  a  hole  is  left  for  the  lobster  to  enter,  attracted  by  the 
bait  of  the  fresh  herring  suspended,  but  it  cannot  get  out 
again.  Osier  pots  are  also  used,  but  of  a  more  oblong 
shape  than  those  employed  with  us.  The  trade  is  pretty 
much  centralized  at  Christiansund.  The  lobsters  are  there 
placed  in  large  reservoirs  made  in  the  centre  of  the  fiord, 
where  they  are  kept  alive  until  despatched  to  Belgium  and 
England.  A  part  are  sent  off  in  wooden  boxes,  and  others 
in  quick-sailing  vessels,  with  holds  having  reservoirs  capable 
of  holding  io,ooo  to  12,000  lobsters,  the  sea  water  passing 
freely  through  holes  pierced  in  the  ship's  side. 

The  commerce  in  lobsters  in  Belgium  is  not  in  a  very 
good  state.  In  1871  several  cargoes  were  imported  from 
Brittany ;  but  these  lobsters  are  larger  than  those  of 
Norway,  and  the  flesh  is  not  so  good,  and  yet  they  sell  at  a 
somewhat  higher  price.  The  whole  of  the  fishery  in  Nor- 
way is  monopolized  by  English  speculators,  so  that  it  is 


lOO       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


difficult  to  buy  a  lobster,  excepting  of  a  diminutive  size 
without  breach  of  contract,  or  paying  comparatively  an 
exorbitant  price. 

The  number  exported  annually  from  Norway  ranged  in 
the  early  part  of  the  century  from  600,000  to  800,000  ;  from 
1825  to  1829  it  was  higher,  reaching  an  average  of  1,280,000; 
in  1848,  607,282  were  sent  away.  The  annual  export  from 
1853  to  1859  was  about  800,000.  In  the  ten  years  ending 
with  1870  the  average  number  shipped  was  1,500,000.  In 
the  last  five  or  six  years  the  number  has  fallen  somewhat 
below  1,000,000. 

The  number  of  lobsters  exported  was  in — 

1870  ... 

1871     

1872  ... 

1873     

1874     

1875     

1876     

The  lobster  is  the  largest  and  most  useful  ofthe  crus  - 
taceans  of  Europe.  It  is  met  with  along  the  whole  coast 
of  Norway  up  to  the  Arctic  circle,  in  the  sea  and  in  the  fiords, 
but  especially  between  Christiania  and  Loudmore. 

The  fishery  for  lobsters  is  well  regulated  on  all  the 
coasts  of  Sweden  and  Norway  as  far  as  Molde.  It  is  pro- 
hibited between  the  15th  July  and  15th  October,  Each 
boat  has  about  30  bow-nets,  and  wooden  cases  with  open- 
ings at  each  end,  having  the  form  of  elongated  casks. 
They  are  sunk  about  38  fathoms  deep  by  means  of 
stones,  after  being  baited  with  waste  fish,  and  are  examined 
night  and  morning.  The  claws  of  the  lobster  are  fastened 
that  the  animals  may  not  injure  each  other,  and  they  are 
shipped  in  fast-sailing,  welled  vessels  that  hold  from  15,000 
to  20,000.     About  3,000,000  are  taken  annually  in  Norway 


1,045,063 

899,708 

919,944 

749,074 

880,630 

,.     1,270,348 

Crustacea.  loi 

and  Sweden  ;  these  are  sold  at  3<^.  to  6d.  each,  according 
to  size.  Those  less  than  eight  inches,  or  which  have  lost 
a  claw,  are  only  worth  half  this  price,  and  they  are  now 
prohibited  to  be  sold. 

The  Cape  lobster  {Paliimrus  Lalandii,  Lam.)  is  used  as 
food  by  the  colonists.  It  is  peculiar  to  the  west  coast,  and 
common  in  Table  Bay ;  is  easily  caught  in  vast  numbers 
all  the  year  round,  and  attains  a  length  of  13  inches  and  a 
breadth  of  nearly  five  inches.  The  flesh  of  the  half-grown 
individual  is  tender  and  delicate,  but  that  of  the  adult  is 
coarse  and  difficult  of  digestion.  To  the  poorer  classes  this 
crustacean  is  a  regular  godsend,  and  it  is  occasionally 
dried  for  preservation. 

A  part  of  the  west  coast  of  New  Jersey,  not  far  from 
Cape  May,  is  infested  in  May  and  June  by  swarms  of  huge 
inedible  crabs,  and  these  are  collected  and  ground  up  for 
manure.  As  to  their  eggs,  one  may  almost  say  that  the 
sand  of  the  beach  consists  of  their  eggs,  for  they  are  scooped 
up  by  the  bushel  and  thrown  to  the  pigs  and  poultry. 

A  large  number  of  fine  crabs  are  caught  on  the  coasts 
of  Norway,  which  only  cost  about  ^d.  or  id.  each  on  the 
spot.  They  are  met  with  in  incredible  numbers  in  the 
fiords  on  the  west  coast,  especially  where  it  is  rocky.  There 
are  often  40  or  50  taken  at  a  time  in  a  cask  or  crab-pot, 
and  they  are  frequently  1 1  inches  long.  The  crab  is  not 
eaten  by  the  coast  populations,  and  it  sells  at  a  very  low 
price,  even  in  the  markets  of  Bergen  and  Stavanger.  Crabs 
are  chiefly  used  cut  up  for  fish  bait.  Lately  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  preserve  them  in  tins  for  export,  and 
specimens  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Exhibition  in  1878. 

A  fishery  for  small  crayfish  is  carried  on  in  the  bays  of 
the  river  Konki,  in  Russia,  and  the  tails  are  dried  for 
sale.     A  pound  will  contain  about  300  of  these  pieces. 


I02       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Various  crabs,  crayfish,  and  prawns  are  regularly  col- 
lected, and  eaten  or  sold  as  food  by  the  natives  of  India. 
All  the  species  thus  used  are,  however,  caught  in  lagoons 
or  fresh-water  lakes,  with  the  exception  of  some  land-crabs. 
Prawns  in  Madras  are  usually  avoided  by  Europeans,  as 
they  are  mostly  taught  in  the  river  Cooum,  which  is  little 
else  than  a  common  sewer.  Some  of  the  crabs  are 
pleasant  to  eat,  but  not  always  safe.  Among  those  eaten 
are  Ltipa  sangiciloneuta,  Desm.,  and  L.  Tranqnebarica, 
Edwards,  and  ThclpJmsa  Leschenmdtii. 

Crayfish  and  lobsters  are  very  abundant  on  the  west 
coast  of  South  America.  At  Juan  Fernandez  they  are 
found  in  such  large  quantities  that  the  fishermen  have  no 
greater  trouble  to  take  them  than  to  strew  a  little  meat  or 
bait  upon  the  shore,  and  when  they  come  to  devour  it,  as 
they  do  in  immense  numbers,  to  turn  them  on  their  backs 
with  a  stick.  By  this  simple  method  many  thousands  are 
taken  annually  ;  and  the  tails,  which  are  in  high  estima- 
tion, are  dried  and  sent  to  Chilca. 

At  Marennes,  in  France,  the  fishery  for  shrimps  brings 
in  a  return  of  ^500  a  year. 

The  British  Shrimp  Fishery. — Shrimping  is  pursued 
extensively  on  many  of  our  sandy  coasts. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  Leigh  fishermen  is  catching 
shrimps.  This  they  do  throughout  the  summer  months. 
The  smaller  boats  continue  to  catch  them  during  the 
winter ;  but  the  larger  vessels,  when  the  demand  for 
shrimps  falls  off,  go  farther  away  to  sea,  hand  and  long 
lining  for  cod,  or  fit  out  with  stow-boat  gear  for  catching 
sprats,  or  go  trawling.  They  fish  during  winter  about  the 
Swin,  the  Barrow  Deeps,  the  Waleet,  and  other  places, 
remaining  at  sea  for  weeks  together ;  but  in  the  summer 
their  practice  is  to  go  out  one  tide  and  return  the  next ; 


Crustacea.  103 

and  a  very  pretty  sight  it  is  to  see  this  little  fleet  of  150 
vessels  all  working  in  and  out  of  Leigh  Creek  together, 
boats  of  all  sizes,  and  sails  of  every  cut  and  colour,  and  if 
it  be  about  sunrise  or  evening  time  when  this  happens,  it 
makes  a  most  charming  picture. 

Shrimps  are  caught  all  over  the  sands  that  lie  in  the 
Thames  estuary.  The  manner  of  catching  them  is  this. 
An  apparatus  is  constructed  in  the  following  manner  : — A 
frame  of  wood  about  six  or  eight  feet  long  (it  may  be  of 
any  size)  is  formed,  and  upon  this  is  placed  a  net,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  net  and  frame,  when  complete,  shall  form 
a  long-pointed  bag  ;  to  the  wooden  frame  is  attached  a 
long  rope,  by  which  it  is  lowered  to  the  bottom,  and  when 
there  dragged  along  by  the  motion  of  the  boat  through  the 
water.  The  edge  of  the  wooden  frame  scrapes  along  the 
sand  and  compels  the  shrimps  to  enter  the  net ;  when  in, 
they  quickly  get  back  to  the  end  of  the  pocket,  where  the 
mesh  is  fine,  and  they  are  secured.  Each  boat  is  provided 
with  three  or  four  of  these  little  trawls.  At  Gravesend, 
where  there  is  also  a  large  fleet  of  craft  employed  in 
shrimping,  they  use  a  much  larger  description  of  net,  and 
each  boat  is  sufficiently  equipped  with  one  of  these. 

Shrimping  boats  must  be  provided  with  a  well,  in  which 
the  shrimps  are  placed  the  moment  they  are  caught.  As 
soon  as  they  are  taken  from  this  well,  on  the  arrival  of  the 
boat  at  Leigh,  they  are  placed  in  a  copper  of  boiling  sea 
water  and  boiled  at  once  ;  when  cool,  they  are  forwarded 
to  London  as  quickly  as  possible. 

As  many  as  looo  gallons  of  shrimps  are  sometimes 
sent  to  London  in  a  single  day  from  this  place  alone. 

Shrimps  and  Prawns,  etc.,  in  other  Countries. — Prawns  at 
Tunis  are  of  great  size,  six  to  seven  inches  long.  Tunis, 
the  ancient  Carthage,  was  always  celebrated  for  them,  and 


I04       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  Roman  emperors  used  to  send  for  them  for  their 
banquets. 

Shrimps  are  collected  in  large  quantities  on  the  east 
coast  of  Norway.  One  species  {Pandaniis  borealis),  dis- 
tinguished by  its  red  colour  and  great  size,  being  three  or 
four  times  larger  than  the  ordinary  shrimp,  is  fished  for 
exclusively  at  Svelvig,  and  sold  at  Drammen,  where  it  is 
much  sought  after. 

Large  quantities  of  dried  shrimps  form  an  important 
article  of  consumption  and  export  at  Maranham,  in  Brazil. 
In  the  eastern  countries,  as  in  India,  there  is  a  large 
commerce  in  them  ;  and  a  shrimp  powder  is  also  used  as 
food  there,  composed  of  dried  shrimps  pounded  up  with 
salt,  spices,  etc.  The  species  used  are  Pcncens  affinis  and 
another  species.  From  the  port  of  Chefoo,  China,  6500  to 
8500  cwt.  of  dried  prawns  are  annually  exported.-  From 
the  port  of  Newchwang  there  was  sent  to  other  Chinese 
ports,  in  1871,  nearly  2000  cwt.  of  dried  shrimps  and  300 
cwt.  of  shrimp  husks.  From  Manila  large  quantities  are 
also  shipped. 

Only  a  few  Australian  Crustacea  are  applied  to  any  use. 
The  Great  Murray  River  crayfish  or  lobster  {Astacoides 
serratus)  Is  brought  In  great  numbers  to  market,  and  is 
generally  used  at  table  as  the  lobster  is  in  Europe.  The 
smaller  crayfish  {Astacoides  qninquecarijiatiis')  is  not  sold  in 
the  markets,  but  is  commonly  eaten  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
many  streams  and  rivers  in  which  It  is  found  in  abundance. 
The  great  marine  spiny  crayfish  or  lobster,  found  abun- 
dantly at  the  Port  Phillip  Head,  is  constantly  exposed  in 
the  shops  and  used  at  table  in  salads,  etc.  It  seems  to  be 
a  variety  of  the  Homarns  amiulicornis,  or  a  very  closely 
allied  species. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   TREPANG   FISHERY. 

Tiepnng  or  b^che-de-mer  fishery  in  the  Pacific  and  Eastern  Seas — Numerous 
varieties  of  Holothuria — Mode  of  preparing  for  market — Process  of  dry- 
.     ing^ — Statistics  of  exports  from  the  Fiji  Islands  and  Tahiti — Large  imports 
into  China. 

An  important  fishery  for  a  food  product,  although  one 
scarcely  known  at  all  in  Europe,  is  the  trepang  fishery  of 
the  Pacific  and  Eastern  Seas. 

The  trepang,  or  beche-de-mer  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  a  most  unsightly  looking  substance,  a  kind  of  sea-slug, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Holotlmria.  There  are  many 
varieties.  The  ordinary  kind  in  point  of  size  and  appear- 
ance resembles  a  prickly  cucumber,  except  that  the  colour 
is  of  a  whitish  brown  ;  another  is  perfectly  black.  Some- 
times they  are  found  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  but  they  are 
generally  very  much  smaller,  and  perhaps  about  eight 
inches  may  be  taken  as  the  average  size. 

There  are  33  different  varieties  enumerated  by  the 
Chinese  traders  and  others  skilled  in  its  classification,  and 
it  varies  in  price  according  to  quality  from  5^.  to  \os.  the 
pound.  Fashion  and  custom  have  caused  each  variety  to 
have   a   different   market.      While   the   gourmand  of  the 


1 06       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

south  smacks  his  lips  on  the  juicy  white  and  black  kinds, 
the  less  cultivated  taste  of  those  at  the  north  is  satisfied 
with  the  red  and  more  inferior  varieties. 

It  is  minced  down  into  a  sort  of  thick  soup  by  the 
Chinese,  who  are  extremely  fond  of  it — and,  indeed,  with 
some  reason,  as  when  cooked  by  a  Chinaman  who  under- 
stands the  culinary  art,  the  trepang  is  a  capital  dish,  and 
is  rather  a  favourite  among  many  of  the  Europeans  at 
Manila. 

This  sea-slug,  when  dried,  is  an  ugly  looking,  dirty-brown- 
coloured  substance,  very  hard  and  rigid,  until  softened  by 
water  and  a  very  lengthened  process  of  cookery,  after 
which  it  becomes  soft  and  mucilaginous.  It  is  found  in  all 
the  sheltered  harbours,  where  it  gropes  about  the  bottom> 
and  feeds  upon  weeds  and  moUusca.  It  is  taken  at  low 
water  upon  the  shoals  and  mud-banks,  over  which  the 
fishermen  wade  knee-deep  in  water,  dragging  their  boats 
after  them,  and  when  the  feet  come  in  contact  with  a  slug, 
it  is  picked  up  and  thrown  into  the  boat.  They  occasion- 
ally search  in  deeper  water,  where  the  fishermen  avail 
themselves  of  the  services  of  the  natives,  who  are  expert  in 
diving  and  tracing  out  the  slugs. 

The  b^che-de-mer,  or  trepang,  is  very  abundant  on  the 
coasts  of  New  Caledonia,  and  constitutes  the  most  im- 
portant branch  of  commerce.  The  annual  exports  are 
valued  at  ^4000.  The  fishery  has  been  carried  on  for  a 
long  time  on  a  neighbouring  island,  Erromango,  which 
serves  as  an  entrepot,  where  vessels  load  with  this  article 
and  sandal-wood,  which  they  carry  to  Shanghai  or  Hong- 
kong. The  merchants  here,  however,  prefer  to  ship  to 
Sydney,  for  which  the  trepang  serves  as  a  return  cargo  for 
the  vessels  which  bring  merchandise. 

Although  there  is  such  a  great  number  of  varieties  of 


The   Trepang  Fishery. 


107 


this  sea-slug,  only  about  five  have  any  great  commercial 
importance,  which  are  as  follows,  with  their  nominal  value 
in  New  Caledonia  : — 

1.  Brown,  with  teats 

2.  Large  black 

3.  Small  black 

4.  Red  bellies 

5.  White 

The  first  quality  sells  in  China  often  as  high  as  £<^0  to 
;^iOO  the  ton.  The  prices  in  the  second  column  per 
kilogramme  are  those  given  in  the  French  Colonial 
Catologue  of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1878. 

Fig.  I. 


Per  to 
;^30 

Per 

kilogramme 
Francs. 

25 

2-0 

20 

1-30 

15 

I"00 

12 

70 

Holothuridse  species. 

The  preparation  of  the  product  is  very  simple.  It  is 
boiled  in  water  for  about  20  minutes,  and  then  slit  up  from 
one  end  to  the  other  and  dried.  This  process  is  carried  on 
in  a  large  shed,  with  three  stages  of  frames  disposed  over  a 
good  fire  to  smoke  and  dry  them.  As  the  trepang  is  very 
hygrometic,  it  is  indispensable  that  they  should  be  kept  dry- 


1  o8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

ing  until  the  moment  of  shipment,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
imbibe  moisture,  for  then  they  become  flaccid  and  decay.* 

The  following  detailed  account  by  Captain  Andrew 
Cheyne,  who  had  had  much  experience  in  the  fishery  and 
preparation,  was  published  some  years  ago  in  a  volume  of 
my  "  Technologist  "  :— 

"  There  are  many  kinds  of  beche-de-mer  found  on  coral 
reefs  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  but  only  ten  of  these  varieties 
are  marketable  in  China,  each  being  distinguished  by  well- 
known  names.  As  they  vary  in  price  from  6  to  35  Spanish 
dollars  per  picul  (1335  lbs.),  it  becomes  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  obtain  the  superior  qualities.  The  slug 
when  cured  presents  quite  a  different  appearance  to  what  it 
does  when  caught ;  and  no  person  but  one  well  acquainted 
with  the  trade  would  be  able  to  ascertain  which  were  the 
first  quality,  by  comparing  the  raw  slug  with  a  cured  one. 
Again,  the  success  of  a  voyage  depends  greatly  on  the 
knowledge  possessed  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  locali- 
ties in  which  the  superior  sorts  are  to  be  found,  together 
with  much  experience  in  the  mode  of  fishing  and  curing 
them. 

"  The  superior  qualities  are  known  by  the  following 
names  in  the  Sooloo  and  Manila  markets: — i.  Bangko- 
lungan  ;  2.  Keeskeesan  ;  3.  Talepan  ;  4.  Munang  ;  each 
presenting  a  different  appearance,  and  found  in  different 
depths  of  water  on  the  reefs. 

"  I.  Bankolungan,  when  caught,  is  from  11  to  15  inches 
in  length,  of  an  oval  shape,  brown  on  the  back,  and  the 
belly  white  and  crusted  with  lime,  with  a  row  of  teats  on 
each  side  the  belly.  It  is  hard,  rigid,  and  scarcely  possesses 
any  power  of  locomotion.  It  has,  however,  the  power  of 
expanding  and  contracting  itself  at  pleasure.     This  quality 

*  "Revue  Maritime  et  Coloniale."     Paris,  March,  1866. 


The   Trepang  Fishery.  109 

is  found  on  the  inner  edge  of  coral  reefs,  in  from  2  to  10 
fathoms  water,  and  on  the  bottom  of  coral  and  sand.  It 
can  only  be  procured  by  diving. 

"2.  Keeskeesan  is  from  6  to  12  inches  in  length,  of  an 
oval  shape,  quite  black,  and  smooth  on  the  back,  with  a 
dark-greyish  belly,  and  one  row  of  teats  on  each  side. 
When  contracted,  it  is  similar  in  shape  to  a  land  tortoise. 
This  quality  is  found  in  shallow  water,  on  the  top  of  coral 
reefs,  and  on  a  bottom  of  coral  and  sand.  Bangkolungan 
and  Keeskeesan  fetch  about  the  same  price  ;  and  the  latter 
being  the  most  plentiful  and  easiest  caught,  ought  of  course 
to  be  the  kind  most  sought  after. 

"  3.  Talepan  varies  in  length  from  nine  inches  to  two 
feet,  and  presents  the  most  remarkable  appearance  of  any 
of  the  species  of  beche-de-mer.  It  is  found  on  all  parts  of 
the  reefs,  but  chiefly  in  from  two  to  three  fathoms  water. 
It  is  of  a  dark-red  colour,  and  narrower  in  proportion  than 
the  before-mentioned  kinds.  The  whole  back  is  covered 
with  large  red  prickles,  which  render  it  easily  distinguish- 
able from  any  of  the  other  kinds.  It  is  much  softer  than 
the  black,  and  more  difficult  to  cure. 

"4.  Munang  is  of  a  small  size,  seldom  exceeding  eight 
inches  in  length,  of  an  oval  shape,  quite  black,  and  smooth  ; 
has  no  teats  or  other  excrescences,  and  is  found  in  shallow 
water  on  the  coral  flats,  and  often  among  turtle  grass  near 
the  shore.  This  is  the  kind  which  the  American  vessels 
chiefly  procure  at  the  Fiji  Islands.  It  is  worth  from  15 
to  25  dollars  per  picul  in  the  China  market.  These  four 
varieties  form  the  superior  qualities  of  the  slug,  and  the 
following  are  the  middling  and  inferior  sorts  : — 

"  5-  Sapatos  China  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  and 
about  the  same  size  as  the  Munang.  It  presents  a  wrinkled 
surface,  and  is  found  adhering  to  the  coral  rocks  on  the 


no       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

top  of  the  reefs.  6.  Lowlowan  is  of  various  lengths,  black, 
wrinkled,  and  narroAV.  It  is  found  on  various  parts  of  the 
reefs.  7.  Balati  bianco  is  about  nine  inches  in  length,  of  an 
oval  shape,  and  a  white-and-orange  colour ;  and  may  be 
easily  known  by  its  voiding  a  white  adhesive  substance, 
which  adheres  to  the  fingers  when  handled.  It  is  found 
generally  on  the  inner  edge  of  reefs,  and  on  a  sandy 
bottom.  Moonlight  nights  are  the  best  time  for  collecting 
this  sort,  as  they  generally  bury  themselves  in  the  sand 
during  the  day.  8.  Matan  is  of  the  same  species  and 
habits  as  No.  7,  and  only  differs  from  it  in  colour,  which  is 
grey,  brown,  and  white  speckled.  9.  Hangenan  is  gener- 
ally about  a  foot  in  length,  of  a  grey  or  greenish  colour, 
wrinkled,  and  is  found  on  the  lagoon  side  of  coral  reefs. 
10.  Sapatos  grande  is  about  12  or  15  inches  in  length, 
and  of  a  brown-and-white  colour,  wrinkled,  and  very 
inferior. 

"  The  following  remarks  on  boiling  beche-de-mer  are  the 
result  of  a  number  of  experiments  made  at  different  times. 
Bangkolungan  and  Keesgeesan  will  require  to  be  boiled 
about  five  minutes  or  more,  if  the  pot  is  nearly  full  ;  they 
must  be  well  stirred,  and  should  be  taken  out  when 
thoroughly  heated  through,  by  which  time  they  will  feel 
quite  hard  and  elastic.  The  cut  part  of  the  fish,  when 
properly  boiled,  should  be  of  a  blue-and-amber  colour,  and 
feel  firm  like  india-rubber.  If  the  pot  is  only  half  full,  they 
will  require  to  boil  fully  10  minutes  before  the  cut  part 
becomes  of  the  blue-and-amber  colour.  The  Talepan  and 
Munang  require  to  be  boiled  fully  10  minutes.  The 
Munang  dries  very  quickly  ;  but  the  Talepan  is  very 
difficult  to  cure,  and  often  requires  two  boilings  before 
it  will  dry.  The  Sapatos  China  requires  to  be  boiled  about 
15   minutes  ;  if  properly  boiled    it   will  dry  very  quickly. 


The  Trepang  Fishery.  1 1 1 

The  Balati  Blanco  and  Matan  need  very  little  boiling,  say 
three  or  four  minutes  if  the  pot  is  nearly  full.  They  should 
be  taken  out  as  soon  as  they  shrink  and  are  thoroughly 
heated  through.  The  Hangenan  should  be  boiled  about 
20  minutes.  This  sort  must  be  very  carefully  handled 
when  raw,  as  it  will  break  in  pieces  if  held  any  time  in  the 
hand.  It  appears  to  me  that  there  are  two  ways  of  boiling 
beche-de-mer  equally  good.  The  first  is  to  take  them  out 
when  boiled  about  a  minute,  or  as  soon  as  they  shrink  and 
feel  hard  ;  the  other  method  is  to  boil  them  as  before 
stated  ;  but  in  boiling  either  way,  the  slugs  ought,  if  pro- 
perly cooked,  to  dry  like  a  boiled  ^'g^^  immediately  on 
being  taken  out  of  the  pot.  Beche-de-mer  dried  in  the  sun 
fetches  a  higher  price  than  that  dried  over  a  wood  fire. 
But  this  method  would  not  answer  in  curing  a  ship's  cargo, 
as  they  take  fully  20  days  to  dry  ;  whereas  by  smoking 
them  they  are  well  cured  in  four  days. 

"  Much  skill  is  required  in  drying  beche-de-mer,  as  well 
as  in  boiling  it,  as  too  much  heat  will  cause  it  to  blister, 
and  get  porous,  like  sponge  ;  whereas,  too  little  heat  again 
will  make  it  spoil,  and  get  putrid  within  24  hours  after 
being  boiled.  There  is,  likewise,  great  care  and  method 
requisite  in  conducting  the  gutting ;  for  if  this  be  not 
properly  attended  to,  by  keeping  the  fish  in  warm  water, 
and  from  exposure  to  the  sun,  it  will,  when  raw,  soon 
subside  into  a  blubbery  mass,  and  become  putrid  in  a  few 
hours  after  being  caught." 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  on  arrival  at  an  island  where 
the  slug  is  plentiful,  is  to  erect  a  large  curing-house  on  shore, 
about  90  feet  in  length,  30  feet  in  breadth,  and  the  sides 
about  10  feet  in  height.  These  houses  are  generally  built 
of  island  materials,  and  thatched  with  mats,  made  by  the 
natives,  of  cocoa-nut  leaves  ;  the  thatch  must  be  well  put 


112        The  Co7nmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

on,  so  as  to  prevent  the  rain  from  penetrating.  The  sides 
are  Hkevvise  covered  in  with  these  mats,  and  a  small  door 
should  be  left  in  each  end.  Platforms,  or  batters,  for  drying 
the  slug  on,  are  then  erected  along  one  side  of  the  house. 
They  should  run  the  whole  length,  and  be  about  eight  feet  in 
breadth  ;  the  lower  one  about  breast-high  from  the  ground, 
and  the  upper  three  feet  above  that.  The  frames  are  generally 
made  of  cocoa-nut  trees,  or  pandanus,  and  covered  with 
two  or  three  layers  of  split  bamboo,  or  reeds,  seized  close, 
so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  network  for  the  slugs  to  lay  on. 
Much  care  and  skill  is  required  in  the  construction  of  these 
batters,  or  platforms,  so  as  to  prevent  the  beche-de-mer  from 
burning,  which  it  would  be  liable  to,  were  they  not  properly 
fitted.  A  trench,  about  six  feet  in  breadth  and  two  feet 
in  depth,  is  then  dug  the  whole  length  of  the  batters  for  the 
fires.  Tubs  are  placed  at  short  distances  along  the  side  of 
the  trench,  filled  with  salt  water,  and  a  good  supply  of 
buckets  kept  in  readiness,  to  prevent  the  fires  from  blazing 
up  and  burning  the  fish,  or  platforms,  as  well  as  to  regulate 
the  degree  of  heat  necessary  for  drying  the  slug. 

The  process  of  curing  is  this  : — The  beche-de-mer  is 
first  gutted,  then  boiled  in  large  pots  ;  and,  after  being 
well  washed  in  fresh  w^ater,  carried  into  the  curing-house, 
in  small  tubs,  or  baskets,  and  emptied  on  the  lower  batter, 
where  it  is  spread  out  (about  five  inches  thick)  to  dry. 
The  trench  is  then  filled  with  firewood,  and  when  the  batter 
is  full  of  trepang,  the  fires  are  lighted,  and  the  drying  process 
commences.  From  this  time  the  fires  must  be  kept  con- 
stantly going,  day  and  night,  with  a  careful  officer  and 
regular  watch  to  attend  to  it.  On  the  afternoon  of  the 
following  day  the  fires  -are  extinguished  for  a  short  time, 
and  the  slugs  shifted  to  the  upper  batter,  having  been  first 
examined,  and  splints  of  wood  put  into  those  which  may 


The  Trepang  Fishery.  1 1 3 

not  be  drying  properly.  When  this  is  done,  the  lower 
batter  is  again  filled  from  the  pots,  the  fires  immediately 
lighted,  and  the  drying  process  continued  as  before.  The 
slugs  on  the  lozver  batter  must  be  turned  frequently  during 
the  first  12  hours.  On  the  second  day  (the  fires  having 
been  extinguished  as  before)  the  slugs  on  the  upper  batter 
are  shifted  close  over  to  one  end,  to  make  room  for  those  on 
the  lower  batter  again  ;  and  so  on,  as  before,  for  the  two 
following  days,  by  which  time  the  first  day's  produce  will  be 
properly  cured.  It  is  then  taken  off  the  batter,  and,  after 
having  been  carefully  examined,  and  those  not  dry  put  up 
again,  the  quantity  cured  is  sent  on  board  the  vessel,  and 
stowed  away  in  bags.  But  should  the  ship  be  long  in 
procuring  a  cargo,  it  will  require  to  be  dried  over  again 
every  three  months,  in  the  sun,  on  platforms  erected  over 
the  deck,  as  it  soon  gets  damp,  unless  when  packed  in  air- 
tight casks. 

If  the  beche-de-mer  is  plentiful,  and  the  natives  bring 
it  daily  in  large  quantities,  40  men  will  be  requisite  to  per- 
form the  work  of  a  house  of  the  above  size ;  and  the  pots 
will  want  two  hands  to  attend  them.  These  curing-houses 
consume  a  large  quantity  of  firewood  daily.  When  beche- 
de-mer  is  cured  and  stowed  away,  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  it  from  getting  wet,  as  one  damp  slug  will 
speedily  spoil  a  whole  bag. 

The  beche-de-mer  fisheries  at  the  Fiji  Islands  have  been 
extended  of  late  years,  particularly  upon  the  Mattuata 
coast,  situated  upon  the  north  side  of  Vanna  Levu.  The 
increase  of  value  of  export  upon  this  head  has  been  large, 
and,  provided  the  exertions  used  to  keep  the  petty  chiefs 
from  quarrelling  are  successful,  will  no  doubt  augment. 
The  product  is  sold  there  at  about  36^-.  per  picul.  The 
prices  fluctuate  very  much,  being  sometimes  as  high  as  40^'. 
6 


114       The  Comine^'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

per  picul  and  as  low  as  24^-.  during  consecutive  months.    It 
is  shipped  to  Sydney,  and  thence  to  China. 
The  exports  were  in — 

Piculs.  Value. 

1S65           ...                ...      500  ...  ...  ;^I200 

1866  ...               ...      300  ...  ...  6cK) 

1867  ...               ...      880  ...  ...  1600 

.    From    Tahiti   there  were   shipped,  in    1874,   5346  lbs., 
valued  at  £^Z. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  names,  classifications, 
and  prices  given  to  specimens  shown  in  the  British 
Museum,  London,  but  the  prices  are  old  quotations  : — 

Per  picul. 
Peach  blossom,  or  spiny ...  ...  ...     §30 

Middle  clear  bald             ...             ...  ..,  20 

Great  black       ...             ...             ...  ...  40 

Black...              ...              ...              ...  ...  30 

Largest  bald  Mashik,  from  Macassar 

Great  white  stone              ,,              ...  ...  15 

Great  clear  bald,  Leucoma             ...  ...  40 

Great  black  stone,  Macassar           ...  ...  60 

Middle  bald,  from  I.eucoma,  small  ...  lO 

Small  bald               ,,               very  small  ...  7 

Square  spiny.  Macassar  ...             ...  ...  10 

Largest  lock,  Leucoma  ...             ...  ...  30 

Trepang  is  very  abundant  around  Tahiti,  Moua,  and  the 
Windward  Islands.  The  ordinary  price  at  Tahiti  is  about 
£AtO  per  ton.  A  single  house  sometimes  ships  150  tons  to 
California,  to  be  thence  sent  on  to  China.  The  imports  of 
beche-de-mer  into  China  in  foreign  vessels  were  stated  to 
be  as  follows  : — 

Piculs  of  133J  lbs. 
1868       ...  ...  ...  ...      18,407^ 


1869 
1870 
1871 

1872 


15.579 
15.447 
".338 
17,953 


Taking  one  year,  1871,  we  find  the  following  imports  of 


The  Trcpang  Fishery.  115 

trepang  were  received  at  different  ports  in  China  in  Chinese 
vessels  : — 

PiculF. 
Chukiang        ...  ...  ...  ...     1008 

Swatow 

Kiukiang         ...  ...  ... 

Takow 
Tamsui 
Ningpo 


404 

144 

18 

34 

1 134 


2742 

And  Shanghai  and  Foochow  receive  together  about  6000 
to  7000  piculs. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  as  to  the  amount  of 
trepang  annually  exported  from  the  North  Australian  coast. 
From  30  to  40  prahus,  varying  from  20  to  70  tons  burthen, 
are  employed  in  the  fishery,  the  crews  amounting  to  about 
1200  men.  They  receive  no  wages,  but  are  entitled  to  a 
certain  portion  of  the  profits  of  the  voyage,  the  system 
being  somewhat  similar  to  that  adopted  in  whale-ships. 
The  provisions  and  stores  required  for  the  voyage  are 
advanced  by  Chinese  or  Dutch  merchants  at  Macassar, 
who  thus  acquire  a  right  to  the  entire  proceeds  at  a  certain 
price  which  has  previously  been  fixed  upon,  and  which  is 
invariably  much  below  the  current  value.  Taking  the 
average  amount  of  trepang  obtained  by  each  prahu  at  2C 
tons,  this  will  give  about  600  tons  as  the  quantity  annually 
exported  from  the  coast.  The  value  at  Macassar  is  70  rupees, 
or  somewhat  less  than  £"]  sterling,  for  the  picul  of  133  lbs. 
avoirdupois.  The  price  to  the  consumer  in  China  is  en- 
hanced to  the  amount  of  about  one-third. 


ii6      The  Comme7'cial  Pi-oduds  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CEPHALOPODS,   ETC.,   AS   FOOD. 

Dried  cuttle-fish  as  food — Consumption  of  octopods  and  polypi  in  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean — Prices  in  Tunis — Mode  of  capture 
and  preparation — Squid  used  for  bait  by  the  North  American  fishermen — 
Cuttle-fish  bone  and  sepia — Large  consumption  of  dried  cuttle-fish  in 
China — Species  of  Echinus  eaten — Palolo  viridis,  a  kind  of  sea-worm, 
edible  ;  fishery  for,  in  the  Pacific.  , 

The  flesh  of  the  large  cephalopodous  animals  was  esteemed 
as  a  delicacy  by  the  ancients.  Most  of  the  eastern  natives, 
and  those  of  the  Polynesian  Islands,  partake  of  it  and 
relish  it  as  food.  They  are  exposed  for  sale,  dried,  in  the 
bazaars  or  markets  throughout  India,  and  in  the  Food 
Collection  arranged  at  the  East  End  Museum,  Bethnal 
Green,  dried  cuttle-fish  may  be  seen  among  the  articles  of 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Siamese  food.  In  Chili  the  flesh  is 
also  considered  a  delicacy,  and  in  Barbados  the  bastard 
cuttle-fish  or  calmar  {Loligo  sagittata,  Lam.)  is  used  as  an 
article  of  food  by  the  lower  classes.  But  from  my  small 
experience  of  this  kind  of  diet,  notwithstanding  the  asser- 
tion of  the  learned  Bacon  in  his  "  Experiment  Solitary 
touching  Cuttle  Ink,"  that  the  cuttle  is  accounted  as  a 
delicate  meat,  and  is  much  in  request,  I  should  say  that  it 


Cephalopods,  etc.,  as  Food.  1 1 7 

is  as  indigestible  and  innutritious  as  it  is  certainly  tough 
and  uninviting. 

Cephalopods  are  eaten  at  the  present  day  on  many 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  coast.  Mr.  Vice-Consul  Green, 
in  a  recent  report,  furnishes  some  novel  and  interesting 
particulars  as  to  the  fishing  and  trade  in  cephalopods  in 
the  Tunis  waters.  Octopodia  and  polypi  are  the  trade 
names  under  which  these  cephalopods  are  known  in  the 
Levant  and  Greek  markets,  where  they  are  solely  im- 
ported for  consumption  during  Lent,  the  orthodox  Church 
not  including  "them  in  the  prohibition  against  the  use  of 
fish  in  seasons  of  religious  abstinence.  They  prefer 
rocky  shallows,  and  visit  those  waters,  coming  from  the 
open  sea,  in  the  months  of  January,  February,  and 
March.  A  considerable  number  of  octopodia,  however, 
remain  permanently  near  the  shores  ;  but  it  has  been 
observed  that  when  their  fry,  locally  called  "  muschi,"  are 
numerous  from  the  month  of  June  to  August,  the  fishing 
of  the  coming  season  is  sure  to  be  abundant,  whilst  the 
reverse  is  the  case  if  they  appear  in  numbers  in  November 
and  December.  In  a  good  season  the  several  villages  on 
the  island  of  Karkenah  supply  about  3000  cwts.,  and  the 
Jubah  waters  a  third  part  of  this  quantity.  In  an  average 
year  the  yield  will  be  under  2000  cwts.,  and  in  one  of 
scarcity  1000  cwts.  On  the  shores  from  the  village  of 
Luesa  to  that  of  Chenies,  in  the  Gulf  of  Khabs,  the  natives 
collect  from  four  to  five  cwts.  of  cuttle-fish  a  day  during 
the  season  ;  but  this  supply  generally  serves  for  the  con- 
sumption of  the  regency.  The  remaining  coast  and  islands 
maybe  calculated  to  furnish  a  minimum  of  650  to  700  cwts. 
of  dried  molluscs. 

The  Tunisian  Government  claims  a  third  of  all  the 
polypi  fished  upon  its  coast.     The  selling  price  varies  con- 


1 1 8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

siderably,  according  to  the  size,  supply,  and  demand,  but  at 
Sfax  a  pair  of  them  may  cost,  as  circumstances  rule,  from 
6d.  to  \s.  '^d. ;  however,  the  preparatory  maceration,  by 
beating  on  a  stone  slab  or  rock,  required  before  drying 
entails  a  small  additional  expense,  and  brings  the  extremes 
of  low  and  high  prices  to  2  5i-.  or  50J.  per  cwt.  To  the  cost 
price  must  be  added  an  export  duty  of  5^",  \d.,  and  the 
purchaser  ought  to  be  careful  to  receive  his  merchandise 
from  the  seller  during  dry  weather,  as  a  damp  day  will 
add  from  four  to  five  per  cent,  to  the  weight  of  every 
cwt. 

From  two  to  three  public  sales  of  dried  polypi  take 
place  in  a  season  on  the  island  of  Karkenah ;  these  are 
regulated  according  to  the  abundance  of  the  fish.  The 
average  price  of  the  last  six  years  has  been — during  the 
first  sale,  from  45^-.  to  ^os.  per  cwt. ;  second  sale,  35^-.  to 
45^.  ;  third  sale,  25^-.  to  30^-.  A  few  first  parcels,  in  order 
to  secure  an  early  market,  have,  however,  occasionally  been 
sold  for  £^  the  cwt. 

Polypi  have  hitherto  been  prepared  for  exportation  by 
simply  salting  and  drying  them,  but  it  is  now  proposed  to 
carry  out  on  a  large  scale  an  experiment,  which  appears  to 
have  proved  successful,  of  preserving  them  either  in  oil  or 
brine,  after  subjecting  them  to  a  preliminary  scouring  and 
boiling  process. 

Malta  receives  the  largest  share  of  the  Tunisian  polypi, 
but  they  are  only  sent  to  that  island  for  ultimate  trans- 
mission to  Greece  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant.  Portugal 
is  one  of  the  few  countries  that  competes  with  Tunis  in 
supplying  the  Greek  markets  with  polypi.  In  Greece  they 
are  either  sold,  after  being  pickled,  at  from  £\2  \6s.  to 
;^I5  9^-.  the  cantar  of  176  lbs.,  or  in  their  original  dried 
state  at  from  £12  to  £\^,  but  these  prices  fluctuate  ac- 


Ccphalopods,  etc.,  as  Food.  119 

cording  to  the  favourable  or  unfavourable  results  of  the 
season's  fishing. 

On  the  first  arrival  of  the  octopodia  in  the  shallows 
they  keep  in  masses  or  shoals,  but  speedily  separate  in 
search  of  shelter  among  the  rocks  near  the  beach,  covered 
by  only  one  or  two  feet  of  water,  and  in  the  stony 
localities  prepared  for  them  by  the  fishermen  in  order  to 
frustrate  the  depositing  of  their  spawn.  Polypi  are  taken 
in  deep  water  by  means  of  earthen  jars  strung  together 
and  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  certain  number  of  hours,  and  in 
which  the  animals  introduce  themselves.  Frequently  from 
8  to  10  polypi  are  taken  from  every  jar  at  each  visit  of 
the  fishermen.  In  less  deep  water  earthenware  drain-pipes 
are  placed  side  by  side,  for  distances  frequently  exceeding 
half  a  mile  in  length,  and  in  these  also  they  enter  and  are 
taken  by  the  fishermen.  As  they  are  attracted  by  white 
and  all  smooth  and  bright  substances,  the  natives  deck 
places  in  the  creeks  and  hollows  in  the  rocks  with  white 
rocks  and  shells,  over  which  the  polypi  spread  themselves, 
and  are  caught  from  four  up  to  eight  at  a  time.  But  the 
most  successful  manner  of  securing  them  is  pursued  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Karkenah,  who  form  long  lanes  and 
labyrinths  in  the  shallows  by  planting  the  butt-ends  of 
palm  branches  at  short  distances  from  each  other,  and  these 
constructions  extend  over  spaces  of  two  or  more  miles. 
On  the  ebb  of  the  tide  (the  fall  is  here  about  10  feet)  the 
octopodia  are  found  in  the  pools  inside  the  enclosures,  and 
are  easily  collected  by  the  fishermen,  who  string  them  in 
bunches  of  50  each,  and  from  8  to  10  of  these  bunches, 
called  "  risina,"  are  secured  daily  during  the  season  by 
every  boat's  crew  of  four  men. 

The  squids  form  an  important  element  in    the    North 


1 20       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

American  fisheries.  The  common  Loligo  is  the  favourite 
food  of  the  cod,  and  is  therefore  itself  fished  for  bait. 
One-half  of  all  the  cod  taken  on  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland are  said  to  be  caught  by  it.  When  the  vast 
shoals  of  this  mollusc  approach  the  coast,  hundreds  of 
vessels  are  ready  to  capture  them,  forming  an  extensive 
cuttle-fishery,  engaging  500  sail  of  French,  English,  and 
American  ships.  During  violent  gales  of  wind,  hundreds 
of  tons  of  them  are  often  thrown  up  together  in  beds  on 
the  flat  beaches,  the  decay  of  which  spreads  an  intolerable 
effluvium  around.  They  must  themselves  be  consumed  in 
enormous  numbers,  for  it  has  been  estimated  that  a  single 
squid  will  lay  in  one  season  40,000  eggs. 

The  cuttle-fish  are  frequently  left  stranded  on  the 
beaches,  and  are  also  caught  by  fishermen,  who  obtain  two 
valuable  products  from  them — the  so-called  calcareous 
bone  (which  is  much  used  by  chemists,  when  pulverized  and 
tinted,  and  sold  as  coral  tooth-powder),  and  the  ink-bag, 
which  forms  the  sepia  colour  of  artists.  On  the  coasts  of 
Brittany  and  La  Vendee,  the  flesh  of  this  polypus  is  eaten 
and  appreciated,  but  on  many  other  coasts  it  is  disdained. 
Much  depends,  how^ever,  on  its  culinary  preparation,  which 
is  somewhat  difficult. 

Dried  cuttle-fish  form  a  large  article  of  export  from 
Japan  to  China.  They  are  called  suswne,  and  are  brought 
chiefly  from  Esasi,  Matsmai,  and  the  west  coast  of  Yesso, 
Fugaro,  and  Yetzidzen,  generally  during  February  and 
October,  and  the  prices  paid  vary  from  14  to  \6\  dollars. 
Small  quantities  brought  to  Hakodate  from  Sado  Island, 
situated  near  the  west  coast  of  Niphon,  are  said  to  be  of 
very  good  quality. 

To  show  the  extent  of  the  Chinese  trade,  it  may  be 
stated  that  in  the  quarter  ending  June,  1872,  the  imports 
into  three  of  the  Chinese  ports  were  as  follows : — 


Cep/ialopods,  ek.,  as  Food.  121 

Picals. 
Kiukiang  ...  ...  ...  ...        869 

Shanghai         ...  ...  ...  ...      1564 

Ningpo  ...  ...  ...  ...      1745 

4198 

—  equal  to  5222  cwt. 

What  is  commonly  termed  cuttle-fish  bone  is  frequently 
found  floating  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  in  much 
greater  quantity  on  the  shores  of  Australia.  It  is  of  an 
oblong  oval  shape,  from  3  to  10  inches  long,  and  its  breadth 
is  about  one-third  of  its  length  ;  hard  upon  its  upper  surface 
and  edges,  but  soft  on  its  lower  side,  both  surfaces  being 
convex.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about '935.  Its  composition, 
though  calcareous,  is  quite  different  from  bone,  being  about 
83  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  calcium,  with  some  magnesia 
and  common  salt,  and  but  little  animal  matter.  The 
structure  is  quite  peculiar  ;  a  fresh  fracture,  when  examined, 
shows  the  layers  of  the  calcium  salt,  supported  by  pillars 
of  the  same  material,  arranged  in  regular  rows,  likened  by 
Wood  the  naturalist  to  an  imitation  Giant's  Causeway.  It 
furnishes  cage-birds  with  tiny  grindstones,  whereon  to  whet 
their  bills,  and  levigated  and  dried  it  forms  the  basis  of 
some  dentrifices. 

When  the  ovaries  of  some  of  the  species  of  sea-eggs 
or  sea-urchins  are  fully  developed — the  Echinus  ediilis,  for 
instance — they  are  collected  as  food.  The  late  Sir  Robert 
Schomburgk,  in  his  "  History  of  Barbados,"  mentions  that 
they  are  eaten  there. 

The  Echinus  albns  is  eaten  by  the  Chilians  and  others. 
It  is  of  a  globular  form,  and  about  three  inches  in  diameter  ; 
the  shell  and  spines  are  white,  but  the  interior  substance  is 
yellowish  and  of  an  excellent  taste. 

Palolo. — Another  curious  food  product  obtained  in  the 
Pacific,  which  is  esteemed  as  highly  as  whitebait  in  Eng- 


12  2       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


land,  is  the  Palolo  viridis,  Gray,  a  small  species  of  sea- 
worm,  a  genus  of  annelides.  The  Rev.  J.  B.  Starr,  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  has  given  the  best  description 

of  it,  as  follows  : — 

Fig.  2. 


I.  Palolo  vitidis,  natural  size.     2.   Portion  of  body,  slightly  magnified.    3. 
Magnified  figure  of  head.     4.  Ditto  of  posterior  extremity.     (Gray.) 

"The  palolo  is  the  native  name  for  a  species  of  sea- 
worm  which  is  found  in  some  parts  of  Samoa  (the  Navi- 
gator Islands)  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean.  They  come 
regularly  in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  during 
portions  of  two  days  in  each  month,  viz.,  the  day  before 


Cephalopods,  etc.,  as  Food.  123 

and  the  day  on  which  the  moon  is  in  her  last  quarter. 
They  appear  in  much  greater  numbers  on  the  second  than 
on  the  first  day  of  their  rising,  and  are  only  observed  for 
two  or  three  hours  in  the  early  part  of  each  morning  of 
their  appearance.  At  the  first  dawn  of  day  they  may  be 
felt  by  the  hand  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  water  ; 
and  as  the  day  advances  their  numbers  increase,  so  that  by 
the  time  the  sun  has  risen,  thousands  may  be  observed  in  a 
very  small  space,  sporting  merrily  during  their  short  visit 
to  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  On  the  second  day  they 
appear  at  the  same  time  and  in  a  similar  manner,  but  in 
such  countless  myriads  that  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is 
covered  with  them  for  a  considerable  extent.  On  each 
day,  after  sporting  for  an  hour  or  two,  they  disappear  until 
the  next  season,  and  not  one  is  ever  observed  during  the 
intervening  time.  Sometimes,  when  plentiful  at  one 
island  in  one  month,  scarcely  any  are  observed  the  next ; 
but  they  always  appear  with  great  regularity  at  the  times 
mentioned,  and  these  are  the  only  times  at  which  they  are 
observed  throughout  the  whole  year.  They  are  found  only 
in  certain  parts  of  the  islands,  generally  near  the  openings 
of  the  reefs  on  portions  of  the  coast  on  which  much  fresh 
water  is  found  ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case. 

"  In  size  they  may  be  compared  to  a  very  fine  straw, 
and  are  of  various  colours  and  lengths,  green,  brown,  white, 
and  speckled,  and  in  appearance  and  mode  of  swimming 
resemble  very  small  snakes.  They  are  exceedingly  brittle, 
and  if  broken  into  many  pieces,  each  swims  off  as  though 
it  were  an  entire  worm.  No  particular  direction  appeared 
to  be  taken  by  them  in  swimming.  I  observed  carefully  to 
see  whether  they  came  from  seaweed  or  rose  from  the  reef, 
and  feel  assured  they  come  from  the  latter  place.  The 
natives  are  exceedingly  fond  of  them,  and  calculate  with 


124       ^/^^  Comjnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

great  exactness  the  time  of  their  appearance,  which  is 
looked  forward  to  with  great  interest.  The  worms  are 
caught  in  small  baskets,  beautifully  made,  and  when  taken 
on  shore  are  tied  up  in  leaves  in  small  bundles,  and 
baked.  Great  quantities  are  eaten  undressed,  but  either 
dressed  or  undressed  they  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. 
Such  is  the  desire  to  eat  *  palolo '  by  all  classes,  that  im- 
mediately the  fishing  parties  reach  the  shore,  messengers 
are  despatched  in  all  directions  with  large  quantities  to 
parts  of  the  island  on  which  none  appear." 

The  great  antiquity  of  the  name  for  this  worm  amongst 
the  South  Sea  Islanders  (Balolo  and  Palolo)  is  attested  by 
the  fact  that  the  parts  of  the  year  most  nearly  corre- 
sponding with  our  months  of  October  and  November,  are 
respectively  named  "  Vula  i  Balolo  lailai "  (little),  and 
""Vula  i  Balolo  leva  "  (large)  ;  the  latter,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  distinguished  by  the  appearance  of  the  "  balolo  "  in 
such  vast  numbers  that  it  is  collected  by  the  natives  as  a 
dainty  article  of  food,  and  is  so  much  prized  that  formal 
presents  of  it  are  frequently  sent  considerable  distances 
into  the  interior,  from  certain  chiefs  resident  on  the  coast, 
to  others  whose  dominions  do  not  happen  to  be  favoured 
by  the  annual  visit  of  the  "  balolo." 

Dr.  Seemann,  in  his  "  Mission  to  Viti,"  gives  us  the 
following  extract  of  a  letter  from  a  lady  in  Fiji  to  her 
friends  in  England  : — "  In  November  we  all  went  for  a 
few  days  to  Wakaya,  about  lo  miles  east-north-east  from 
Ovalau,  in  order  to  see  the  balolos,  which  rise  out  of  the 
reefs  just  before  daylight,  at  first  in  small  numbers,  but 
about  sunrise  in  such  masses  that  the  sea  looks  more  solid 
than  liquid.  As  they  were  to  appear  on  the  morning  of 
the  25th,  we  retired  to  rest  at  an  early  hour  the  night 
before,  and  rose  with  the  moon  about  one  o'clock  in  the 


Cephalopods,  etc.,  as  Food.  125 

morning.  An  hour's  pull  in  the  whaleboat  brought  us  to 
the  very  spot  to  which  they  were  to  come.  We  found 
several  natives  already  collected  there  in  boats  and  canoes, 
all  anxiously  looking  out  who  should  get  the  first  '  balolo.' 
This  they  discovered  by  sitting  with  their  hands  in  the 
water  as  the  canoe  was  gently  paddled  about.  Presently 
there  was  great  shouting — nets  were  put  out,  and  the 
excitement  commenced.  At  first  our  nets  did  very  well  ; 
but  soon  the  balolos  became  too  numerous  for  them  to  be 
of  any  use,  and  they  were  caught  by  the  hands  and  thrown 
into  the  baskets  with  which  the  boats  were  filled.  We 
placed  a  white  handkerchief  four  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  but  the  little  creatures  were  so  thick  above  it 
that  it  was  quite  invisible.  At  first  I  could  not  make  up 
my  mind  to  touch  them,  but  seeing  every  one  else  doing 
so,  I  summoned  up  all  my  courage,  plunged  in  my  hands, 
and  grasped  a  goodish  number,  of  which  however  I  got  rid 
as  quickly  as  possible.  The  little  slimy  things  twist  round 
the  hand  in  half  a  second.  They  are  of  course  perfectly 
harmless,  swim  very  fast,  and  the  longer  ones  have  some- 
times five  or  six  coils  in  the  body.  When  at  the  thickest, 
they  are  all  entangled  one  in  another,  presenting  a  very 
curious  appearance,  as  they  are  of  various  shades  of  green, 
brown,  and  white.  As  the  sun  gains  power,  they  disappear, 
and  about  eight  or  nine  o'clock  you  can  scarcely  find  one. 
It  is  always  in  November  they  come  in  such  masses,  just 
after  the  last  quarter  of  the  moon,  and  they  rise  with  the 
tide.  As  soon  as  the  natives  have  gathered  all  they  can, 
they  make  fires  and  ovens  to  cook  them.  Small  quantities 
of '  balolo  '  are  tied  up  in  bread-fruit  leaves,  and  have  to  lie 
in  the  oven  from  12  to  18  hours.  When  all  is  cooked,  the 
natives  expect  a  heavy  shower  of  rain,  as  they  say  to  put 


126      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

out  the  fires  of  their  ovens.    Should  there  be  no  rain,  a  bad 
yam  season  is  expected." 

Many  of  the  European  residents  in  the  Fijis  eat  the 
"balolo,"  and  look  on  it  as  quite  a  periodical  relish.  It 
also  makes  its  appearance  in  the  New  Hebrides,  in  Tonga, 
and  in  the  Samoan  or  Navigator  Islands  identically  with 
its  advent  in  Fiji. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

MISCELLANEOUS   FISHERIES. 

The  capelin  fishery  of  Newfoundland— Chiefly  used  as  bait  for  cod — Some 
shipped  pickled  and  dried— The  halibut  fishery  on  the  American  coast — 
The  sword-fish  eaten  as  food — Fishing  for  turbots,  soles,  and  other  flat  fish 
— Quantity  sold  annually  in  Billingsgate — Fish  in  India. 

The  Capelin  Fishery. — The  capelin  {Alallotus  arcticus ; 
M.  villostis,  Cuv.)  is  peculiar  to  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 
It  is  a  very  delicate  fish,  resembling-  a  smelt.  Its  visits 
are  during  August  and  September,  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning  on  beaches.  At  times  they  are  so  numerous  as 
to  darken  the  sea  for  miles,  while  the  cod  feed  on  them 
with  the  utmost  voracity.  We  only  know  them  in  Europe 
in  the  dried  state,  some  quantity  being  imported  from 
New^foundland. 

As  an  article  of  bait  for  cod  and  other  fish  of  that 
class,  the  capelin  is  of  much  importance  ;  whenever 
abundant,  the  cod  fishing  is  excellent.  Like  the  common 
smelt,  it  possesses  the  cucumber  smell,  but  differs  from  the 
smelt  in  never  entering  fresh-water  streams. 

This  delicious  fish  is  now  only  locally  sought  for  bait 
and  manure,  but  a  very  small  quantity  are  cured.  This  may 
hereafter  become  a  great  source  of  wealth,  when  we  con- 


128      The  Comtnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

sider  how  large  a  trade  is  carried  on  in  sardines  and 
anchovies.  If  they  were  merely  pickled  and  dried,  a 
simple  operation  which  could  be  performed  by  children, 
they  would  be  worth  at  least  4^-.  a  barrel ;  and  1,000,000 
barrels  would  find  a  market  if  introduced  into  fish-eating 
countries,  and  not  sensibly  lessen  the  quantity  which  every 
summer  swarms  in  every  bay  and  creek  of  the  island  of 
Newfoundland  and  the  Labrador  coast. 

The  HalibiU  (Hippoglossns  vulgaris,  Cuv.). — The  halibut 
abounds  in  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New- 
foundland to  Cape  Hatteras.  From  some  ports  of  Nova 
Scotia  a  considerable  trade  in  halibut  is  carried  on  with 
the  United  States.  On  parts  of  the  coast  the  fish  is  so 
abundant,  and  of  such  large  size,  that  the  localities  are 
avoided  by  those  engaged  in  cod  fishing,  as  a  boat  or  small 
vessel  becomes  soon  heavily  laden  This  fish  sometimes 
attains  the  weight  of  400  to  500  lbs.  The  flesh  is  some- 
what coarse  and  dry,  but  is  much  esteemed  by  many.  It 
is  lightly  salted  and  smoked.  The  fins  and  flaps  are 
delicacies,  if  the  fish  is  in  good  condition.  The  halibut  is 
also  cut  into  slices  and  pickled  in  barrels,  in  which  state  it 
sells  at  half  the  price  of  the  best  herrings. 

The  fishing  for  the  halibut  is  very  important,  and  5000 
to  6000  barrels  are  taken  in  the  British  Provinces  by 
Americans,  few  of  the  native  settlers  em.barking  in  it. 
The  fish  is  somewhat  different  from  the  European  fish  of 
the  same  name. 

Sword-fish. — The  flesh  of  the  Tctraptunis  Australis  is  an 
excellent  article  of  food,  much  resembling  that  of  the  true 
sword-fish  or  "pesce  spada"  {XipJnas  gladius)  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Its  flesh  is  much  esteemed  there  as  an  article  of 
food.  The  sword-fish  is  common  in  the  Bosphorus,  and 
measures   10  to  12  feet,  and  of  proportionate  girth.     The 


Miscellaneous  Fisheries.  129 

flesh,  which  is  of  a  dull  red  colour,  is  very  palatable,  and  a 
sword-fish  steak  makes  an  excellent  substitute  for  a  salmon 
cutlet.  A  sword-fish  was  shown  at  Boston,  U.S.,  some 
years  ago,  which  weighed  over  lOOO  lbs.,  and  measured, 
including  the  sword,  14  feet. 

The  fishermen  of  Sables  d'Olonne,  France,  dry  and 
salt  the  flesh  of  Sqnalus  canicidata,  and  of  another  species, 
the  dog-fish  {S.  galeiis),  for  winter  use. 

Turbot,  Soles,  etc. — The  British  trawl  vessels  catch  their 
fish  on  the  vast  submarine  plateau  extending  from  Flam- 
borough  Head  to  the  south  of  Orfordness  on  the  English 
coast,  and  from  the  Long  Fisher  Bank,  north  of  Heligo- 
land, to  Ter  Schelling,  on  the  Dutch  coast. 

Soles  fourteen  years  ago  cost  2d.  to  2\d.  per  lb. ;  now  they 
are  worth  Zd.  to  \s.  2d.  per  lb.  Large  soles  are  difficult  to 
get  at  all.  Small  soles  go  by  the  name  of  "  tongues  ;  "  the 
smallest  are  "  cat's  tongues."  "Slips"  are  9^  to  10  inches 
in  length.  A  fair-sized  sole  would  be  about  12  inches. 
The  legal  sizes  for  the  sale  of  fish  in  France  limit  soles  and 
turbot  to  four  inches. 

Sole  fishing  is  a  trade  carried  on  most  extensively  at 
various  parts  of  the  English  coast,  but  more  particularly  at 
the  Great  Silver  Pitts,  situated  betwixt  the  Dogger  and 
Wellbank,  east  from  the  Humber  river.  Sole  fishing  is  con- 
ducted upon  exactly  the  same  principle  as  oyster  dredging. 
The  vessel  sails  easily  along  at  the  rate  of  about  two  knots 
per  hour,  pulling  the  dredge  after  her;  and  as  the  traveler's 
dredge  or  net  is  fitted  with  inside  pockets,  when  once  the 
fish  are  fairly  entered  into  the  net,  they  cannot  again  easily 
get  out.  The  depths  and  bottom  about  the  middle  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth  are  similar  to  those  about  the  Great  Silver 
Pitts,  and  as  soles  are  frequently  caught  by  fishermen  on 
their  lines,  the  supposition  is  that  were  dredges  used  in 


130      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

25  and  30  fathoms'  water  in  the  Firth,  soles  might  also  be 
found  there  lying  in  clusters. 

On  that  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Ireland  connected 
with  Lough  Foyle,  turbot  fishing  is  carried  on  from  March 
to  November.  Turbot  average  to  the  fishermen  3J-.  to  4s. 
per  dozen,  and  there  are  about  12  dozen  of  turbot  sent 
weekly  from  Moville  to  Liverpool  and  Glasgow.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  soles  and  plaice  is  also  shipped  irom 
the  trawlers. 

One  hundred  millions  (or  about  12,000  tons  in  weight) 
of  soles  are  said  to  be  sold  annually  in  Billingsgate. 

Nearly  every  fish  that  swims,  either  in  salt  or  fresh 
water,  is  greedily  eaten  by  the  natives  in  India.  Sharks 
especially  are  much  valued,  and  said  to  be  very  pala- 
table and  nutritious.  The  fishery  for  these  is  described  in 
another  chapter.  In  the  bazaars  of  Madras  it  would  be 
possible  to  obtain  some  200  or  300  kinds  of  dried  fish, 
including  different  preparations  of  the  same  species.  In 
curing  fish,  salt,  owing  to  its  high  price,  is  used  as  sparingly 
as  possible,  and  hence,  as  a  rule,  the  dried  fish  of  the 
bazaar  has  anything  but  a  pleasant  odour.  In  some  quar- 
ters saline  earth  is  used  instead  of  salt,  as  being  cheaper ; 
but  fish  cured  in  this  manner  is  said  to  have  an  unpleasant 
flavour,  and  to  be  apt,  when  continuously  used,  to  bring  on 
itch.  The  fish  most  in  repute  for  European  tables  in 
Madras  are  the  seer  {Cybiuni  Commersonii),  the  pomfrets 
{Stromateiis  niger  and  vS.  argenteus),  and  mullets.  The  seer 
is  sold  in  cutlets,  like  salmon  in  Europe,  and  is  in  some 
respects  perhaps  superior  to  salmon,  more  especially  as 
regards  digestibility. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

OYSTERS   AND   OTHER   EDIBLE   MOLLUSCA. 

Britain  long  celebrated  for  oysters — Large  consumption  and  great  value  of 
those  consumed  in  England— Continually  advancing  prices — The  Jersey 
fishery — The  French  oyster  fishery — Oyster  consumption  in  Paris — Ostrei- 
culture on  the  French  coast — American  oyster  fishery — ^The  New  York 
trade — Oysters  in  Australia — Clams  and  other  edible  molluscs. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  oyster  is  extensive. 
Large  quantities  are  found  on  the  American  coasts  and  at 
the  Antipodes.  On  the  coast  of  Africa  it  is  also  plentifully 
sprinkled. 

In  antiquity  Britain  was  so  celebrated  for  oysters,  that 
they  were  sent  to  Rome  ;  a  fact  attested  by  more  than  one 
of  the  Roman  poets.  The  epicures  of  that  city  had  their 
layers  or  stews  for  oysters,  as  we  have  at  present  in  the 
open  sea.  According  to  Pliny,  the  oyster  reservoirs  were 
first  made  by  Sergius  Orata,  not  for  the  gratification  of  his 
own  palate,  but  as  a  most  lucrative  speculation  by  which  he 
realized  large  profits.  The  ancients  ate  oysters  as  we  do, 
either  raw  or  roasted  ;  but  they  had  also  a  way  of  stewing 
them  with  mallows  and  docks,  and  sometimes  with  fish. 
There  is  a  curious  account  of  the  treatment  of  oysters  in 
Sprat's   "  History  of  the  Royal    Society,"  an   abstract   of 


132       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

which  may  be  found  in  Pennant's  "  British  Zoology." 
About  1776,  the  oysters  of  Colchester  and  Rochester  were 
the  most  famous  ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
latter  place  were  concerned  in  or  supported  by  this  fishery, 
which  was  conducted  by  a  company  of  free  dredgers, 
established  by  prescription,  but  subject  to  the  Corporation. 
It  is  from  September  to  April  that  oysters  are  in  most 
request,  and  during  this  interval  it  is  computed  there  are 

Fig.  3. 


800,000,000  of  oysters  consumed  in  London  alone,  and 
quite  as  many,  if  not  more,  in  the  provinces.  We  pay 
between  ^4,000,000  and  ;6^5, 000,000  a  year  for  oysters,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  double  the  quantity  would  find  ready 
consumption  if  they  were  obtainable  at  a  reasonable  price. 
During  the  last  ten  years  the  price  of  "  natives  "  has  in- 
creased from  two  guineas  to  ten  guineas  a  bushel. 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  Molliisca.  133 

The  English  native  oyster  of  the  coasts  of  Kent  and 
Essex  is  distinguished  from  all  others  : — i.  By  its  peculiar 
flavour  and  delicacy.  2.  By  the  colour  of  its  lobes  and 
mantle,  which  are  of  a  clear  green  hue,  due  to  the  marine 
plants  on  which  it  feeds.  3.  By  its  thin  and  translucid 
shell  of  a  brilliant  pearly  interior,  unlike  the  common 
oyster  which  has  a  large  calcareous  centre,  indicating  an 
inferior  quality. 

The  English  native  oyster  contains  iron  and  alkaline 
iodides,  which  renders  this  mollusc  sweet  and  wholesome, 
and  nourishing  food. 

Now  that  the  genuine  Whitstable  oyster  fetches  ^s.  6d. 
the  dozen,  and  is  likely  to  cost  4^'.,  if  not  more,  soon — 
with  oysters,  in  a  word,  at  threepence  halfpenny  each,  and 
threatening  to  rise  to  fourpence— anything  that  aftects,  or 
tends  to  affect,  the  price  of  this  delicious  bivalve  cannot  but 
be  matter  of  almost  universal  interest.  It  is  certainly  cause 
for  great  regret  that  the  supply  of  the  best  kind  of  oysters 
should  have  fallen  so  short  as  it  has  done  of  late  years. 
The  oyster  is  not  a  luxury  which  only  very  rich  people  can 
expect  to  command,  but  it  ought  to  be  within  the  reach  of 
all  persons  of  moderate  means.  It  is  essentially  the  most 
popular,  as  well  as  palatable,  of  delicacies.  It  is  not  many 
years  since  the  best  "  natives  "  from  Whitstable  and  Col- 
chester were  only  sixpence  a  dozen  in  a  West-End  estab- 
lishment, and  "  seconds  "  but  two-thirds  of  that  sum  ;  and 
then  the  City  clerk,  emerging  hungry  from  the  theatre, 
could  appease  his  appetite  with  oysters  and  draught  stout, 
secure  from  any  suspicion  of  undue  extravagance.  Those 
golden  days  unfortunately  have  fled,  and,  unless  active  and 
practical  steps  be  taken  to  replenish  our  oyster  beds,  they 
can  never  be  expected  to  return. 

The  oyster  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  mollusc  of  the  sea. 


134       ^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

It  can  only  live  and  breed  in  certain  shallow  estuaries,  and 
even  in  these  it  only  thrives  within  particular  limits.  If  we 
overfish  our  estuaries  we  depopulate  them,  and  we  have 
systematically  over-dredged  our  oyster  beds.  Thus  we  are 
now  reaping  the  inevitable  result  of  extravagance  and 
waste.  We  must  cultivate  the  oyster,  or  else  rest  content 
to  see  it  become  still  scarcer,  or  even  extinct.  No  third 
course  is  possible.  Oyster  culture  in  England  is  still  in  its 
infancy,  but  it  is  satisfactory  to  know  that  steps  are  being 
taken  to  improve  our  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  oyster  fishing  of  Arklow,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Ireland,  is  a  large  and  constant  source  of  employment  to 
the  fishermen.  The  oysters  are  carried  in  boats  to  Beau- 
maris, in  Anglesey,  where  they  are  laid  on  banks  and  raised 
when  required  for  the  Liverpool  market. 

Oysters  continue  to  be  scarce  and  dear  in  England. 
In  former  years  some  hundreds  of  boats  might  be  seen  in 
Goree  harbour,  Jersey,  engaged  in  the  fishery  ;  now,  scarcely 
a  dozen  boats  can  pay  their  way  by  dredging.  The  fishing- 
is  most  active  from  February  to  May. 

During  the  spring  of  1850  the  number  of  Jersey  boats 
employed  in  the  fishery  was  70,  manned  by  350  men  ;  of 
English  boats,  119,  manned  by  623  men — a  total  of  189 
boats,  4018  tons,  983  men.  The  quantity  of  oysters 
caught  was  105,000  tubs,  which  fetched  3J-.  a  tub — or 
;^i  5,300!  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  there  were 
40  Jersey  boats,  manned  by  200  men  ;  40  English  boats, 
220  men.  These  80  boats  caught  19,200  tubs,  which  sold 
at  2s.  6d.  per  tub,  or  ;^2400  ;  the  total  produce  of  the 
oysters  dredged  in  the  spring  and  autumn  of  1850  being 
thus  ;^  1 7,700. 

In  Falmouth  harbour  there  are  from  200  to  300  boats 
employed  in  the  oyster  fishery.  The  price  has  risen  from 
2s.  to  iSj.  per  bushel. 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca.  135 

The  conventional  ring-gauge  of  oysters  is  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  this,  it  is  thought,  might  be 
reduced  to  two  inches. 

Some  36,000  bushels  of  oysters  have  been  taken  to  the 
coast  of  Kent  to  lay  down  in  beds  for  the  London  market, 
and  large  quantities  are  bought  by  French  and  other 
merchants,  the  French  giving  the  highest  price. 

The  French  Oyster  Fishery. — To  show  the  importance 
of  the  French  oyster  fishery,  it  may  be  stated  that  more  than 
30  years  ago  the  value  of  the  oysters  taken  at  the  two  ports 
of  Granville  and  Cancale  realized  ;^22,ooo.  At  Granville 
105  boats,  employing  760  men,  took  18,750,000  oysters, 
and  at  Cancale  187  boats,  with  1083  men,  took  only 
8,000,000  oysters.  The  Granville  oysters  then  sold  at  19 
francs  62  cents  the  looo;  Cancale  oysters  at  21  francs. 

In  a  report  submitted  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon  by 
M.  Coste,  he  showed  that  the  production  of  oysters  on  the 
plan  recommended  by  him  had  taken  such  a  prodigious 
development,  that  in  the  He  de  Re  alone  more  than  3000 
men,  who  had  come  from  the  interior,  had  established  1500 
parks,  which  produced  annually  about  371,000,000  oysters, 
of  the  value  of  from  6,000,000  francs  to  8,000,000  francs. 

To  show  the  consumption  of  Paris,  and  the  great  in- 
crease of  price,  the  following  figures  may  be  given  : — 


Consumption. 

Price  per  loo. 
Francs. 

1804 

17,200,000 

— 

IS46 

47,400,000 

...      3-38 

1852 

77>9oo,ooo 

2-27 

1858 

57,600,000 

..•      3-58 

1868 

26,500,000 

7-20 

The  price  has  since  advanced  to  over  12  francs  the  lOO,  and 
the  effect  has  been  to  stimulate  the  development  of  ostrei- 
culture. 


136       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  value  of  the  oysters  sold  in  France  in  1872  was 
;^520,ooo,  and  in  1873,  ;^6oo,ooo.  The  ports  of  Granville, 
Cancale,  and  L'Orient  produced  nearly  13,000,000  oysters, 
about  4,500,000  more  than  in  the  previous  year.  Ostrei- 
culture, thanks  to  the  care  and  wise  regulations  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, is  making  rapid  progress,  both  to  the  benefit  of 
the  fishermen  and  the  public.  In  the  quarter  of  La  Teste, 
where  this  industry  is  extensively  carried  on,  42,342,250 
oysters  were  obtained,  being  17,000,000  more  than  in  the 
previous  year. 

As  there  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun,  it  would  appear 
that  artificial  oyster-culture  is  no  exception,  for  in  the  days 
of  the  Stuarts  many  Star  Chamber  edicts  were  issued  pro- 
hibiting the  "  exportation  beyond  the  seas "  of  "  oyster 
faggots,"  i.e.,  fascines  with  young  oysters  attached  ;  and  at 
another  time,  in  those  halcyon  days  when  Whitstable 
oysters  rose  from  Zd.  to  6s.  the  bushel,  "  water  measure," 
their  exportation  was  prohibited,  subject  to  dire  pains  and 
penalties.  It  is  strange  that  the  French  should  learn 
oyster  culture  from  us,  and  that  we  should  be  beholden  to 
them  for  what  we  know  about  the  artificial  reproduction  of 
the  oyster,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  we  abound  in 
aquaria  paying  remunerative  dividends. 

The  French  have  been  more  zealous  and  energetic  in 
oyster  culture  than  we  have.  At  Arcachon,  in  the  centre 
of  a  basin  exposed  only  during  low  water,  is  a  bank  called 
Lahellon,  of  a  surface  of  about  100  acres,  forming  the 
model  oyster  ground,  which  is  only  above  water  for  25 
minutes  at  every  low  tide.  The  oyster  bed  proper  covers 
only  10  acres,  to  which,  however,  have  been  added,  as 
annexations  and  depots,  about  60  acres  of  neighbouring 
banks.  On  this  small  space,  where  the  first  oysters  were 
planted  in  i860,  the  enormous  oyster  population  has  been 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  MoUusca.  137 

generated  which  now  covers  it,  and  at  some  future  day  will 
be  a  source  of  great  wealth. 

The  first  deposit  made  consisted  of  500,000  oysters, 
and  near  them  10,000  large  hollow  earthen  tubes  were 
so  placed  and  piled  up  as  to  afford  a  desirable  stopping- 
place  for  the  young  vagabond  oysters,  the  birth  of  which 
was  expected.  Notwithstanding  partial  failures,  unavoid- 
able in  all  such  totally  new  enterprises,  the  park  of 
Lahellon,  with  its  appendages,  was  estimated  to  have  pro- 
duced, in  1868,  50,000,000  oysters,  which  is  much  more 
than  the  rest  of  the  bay  contained  in  its  40,000  acres' 
surface. 

It  is  reckoned  that  the  net  increase  of  the  receipts  from 
oysters  alone  in  France  is  rather  over  ^^300,000  a  year.  All 
down  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  from  Brest  to  the 
Gironde,  the  shores  are  studded  with  artificial  beds  belong- 
ging  to  private  individuals,  but  regularly  and  rigidly  in- 
spected by  Government.  The  population  of  the  islands  of 
Re  and  Oleron  in  particular  are  entirely  supported  by  the 
oyster  beds. 

Auray  in  Brittany  is,  next  to  Arcachon,  the  seat  of  the 
most  important  of  all  French  oyster  fisheries.  There  is 
one  establishment  in  the  Auray  district — that  of  M.  d'Argy, 
at  Le  Breneguy,  near  Locmariaquer — which  comprises 
about  100  acres  in  a  single  enclosure,  private  property, 
and  about  12  hectares  outside,  in  addition,  between  the 
enclosure  and  the  sea.  The  lOO  acres  now  forming  this 
great  oyster-pond  were  in  1864  part  of  a  farm  belonging  to 
M.  d'Argy,  and  divided  in  the  usual  way  into  fields.  In 
that  year  the  sea  broke  in,  and  submerged  it,  causing,  as  it 
was  thought  at  the  time,  great  destruction  of  property. 
The  proprietor,  however,  eventually  determined  some  time 
ago  to  form  it  into  an  oyster-tank,  and,  by  means  of  sub- 
7 


138       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

stantial  embankments  erected  at  great  cost,  has  succeeded 
most  completely  in  doing  so.  In  1876  M.  d'Argy  laid  down 
6,000,000  oysters,  3,500,000  being  of  the  five-centimetre 
size.  These  have  grown  well,  and  the  large  ones  were  also 
in  good  condition  ;  indeed,  so  satisfactory  have  been  his 
efforts  that  he  has  been  enabled  to  contract  for  the  present 
supply  of  1,000,000  marketable  oysters  to  London  and  the 
same  to  Paris,  while  the  quantity  despatched  to  each  place 
will  shortly  be  increased  to  2,000,000. 

The  official  value  of  the  produce  of  the  principal  oyster 
fisheries  in  France  in  1873  was  given  as  follows  : — 

Quarters.  Francs. 

Sables  d'Olonne      ...  ...  ...  60,200 

Noimontiers  ...  ...  ...  79i^76 

De  Vannes  ...  ...  ...  98,590 

D'Auray  ...  ...  ...  ...  274,849 

L'Orient   ...  ...  ...  ...  35, 000 

Paimpol    ...  ...  ...  ...  105,800 

Cancale     ...  ...  ...  ...  595,020 

Granville  ...  ...  ...  ...  61,595 

La  Hougue  ...  ...  ...  183,085 

Caen         ...  ...  ...  ...  96,786 

Havre       ...  ...  ...  ...  121,800 

Calais       ...  ...  ...  ...  28,932 

Teste         ...  ...  ...  ...  1,736,032 

The  dredging  in  the  ports  of  Granville,  Cancale,  and 
L'Orient  produced  in  1873  12,805,000  oysters,  against 
4,586,000  oysters  in  the  previous  year.  In  1874  the  pro- 
duce at  Cancale  was  13,454,000  oysters. 

The  following  official  statement,  lately  published,  gives 
the  statistics  of  the  commerce  in  oysters  in  France  for  the 
seasons  ist  September  to  30th  April  : — 


Oysters  taken  from  the  beds. 

Value  in  francs. 

Price  per  looo. 
Francs. 

1874 

104,731,350 

7,727,000 

-           7378 

1875 

227,640,212 

11,247,416 

49-40 

1876 

335.774,070 

13,226,296 

39-39 

Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca.  139 

The  basin  of  Arcachon  and  the  other  maritime  rivers 
of  that  coast  are  those  where  the  artificial  culture  of  oysters 
has  been  most  attended  to.  In  the  season  ending  April, 
1877,  202,392,225  oysters,  valued  at  4,500,000  francs,  were 
delivered  to  commerce  from  Arcachon.  The  DAuray 
quarter  collected  and  delivered  101,736,000  oysters,  valued 
at  500,000  francs,  during  the  same  period. 

The  Avm'kan  Oyster  Fishery. — The  trade  in  oysters  in 
the  United  States  is  very  large.  The  Baltimore  oyster 
beds  in  the  Chesapeake  river  and  its  tributaries  cover 
3000  acres,  and  produce  an  annual  crop  of  about  25,000,000 
bushels. 

The  oyster  trade  of  New  York  is  one  using  large 
amounts  of  capital,  employing  nearly  150  sailing  vessels, 
with  crews  averaging  in  the  aggregate  700  seamen,  and 
handling  millions  of  bushels  of  oysters  per  annum.  There 
are  moored  at  the  wharfs  in  New  York  city  nearly  60 
barges,  or  "  lay-boats  "  as  they  are  called,  costing  from  ;^6oo 
to  ;^iOOO  each,  substantially  built,  having  compartments 
capable  of  containing  thousands  of  bushels  of  oysters  in  the 
shell. 

The  oyster  season  commences  about  the  ist  of  October 
(when  the  boats  owned  by  the  dealers  are  sent  to  the  beds 
for  cargoes),  and  lasts  until  the  middle  of  March  or  ist 
of  April.  The  oyster  fleet  is  composed  principally  of 
schooners,  ranging  from  35  tons  to  250  tons,  and  receives 
the  proceeds  of  the  dredgings  of  the  beds  at  York  River, 
Prince's  Bay,  Keyport,  City  Island,  Cow  Bay,  Rockaway, 
Oyster  Bay,  Glen  Cove,  Blue  Point,  Norwalk,  Stamford, 
and  Greenwich.  When  the  oysters  are  received,  they  are 
discharged  directly  on  the  wharf  to  dealers  ;  and  after 
these  are  supplied,  the  balance  is  stored  in  the  compart- 
ments of  the  lay-boats.     From  the  lay-boats  the  oysters  are 


140       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

shipped  to  other  cities  at  the  north  and  west.  For  ship- 
ment, they  are  packed  in  barrels  in  the  shells,  or  opened 
and  packed  in  tubs  with  ice,  and  forwarded  by  rail  to 
Boston,  Providence,  Portland,  Chicago,  Omaha,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  other  cities.  Very  few  oysters  are  canned  in  New 
York.  That  trade  seems  to  be  principally  monopolized  by 
Baltimore.  Besides  the  oyster  shipping  interests,  there  is 
the  important  retail  trade  in  the  city.  The  well-fitted  and 
at  times  luxurious  offices  on  the  lay-boats  are  the  meeting- 
rooms  of  the  proprietors  of  the  hotels,  restaurants,  retail 
oyster  saloons,  and  cheap  oyster  stands.  At  certain  hours 
in  the  day,  representatives  of  each  of  these  branches  of  the 
trade  may  meet  in  the  office,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
a  cargo  of  oysters — extras,  box,  cullens — is  disposed  of 
astonishes  a  novice.  One  man  requires  only  the  largest 
oysters  in  the  lot.  Another  wants  to  know  if  the  dealer 
hasn't  got  a  lot  of  small  oysters  for  cheap  stews.  A  third 
requires  tip-top  box  oysters,  and  another  asks  when  the 
next  cargo  of  York  Rivers  or  Rockaways  is  expected. 

Most  of  the  dealers  own  the  beds  from  which  they 
receive  the  oysters,  but  are  compelled  to  have  partners  to 
superintend  the  catching  and  loading,  because  most  of  the 
beds — in  fact,  all  except  those  bordering  on  Long  Island — 
are  out  of  the  State.  The  laws  of  the  other  States — Con- 
necticut, New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Virginia — do  not 
permit  non-residents  to  own  beds  or  catch  oysters  within 
their  domains.  So  the  New  York  dealers,  at  least  some 
of  them,  form  co-partnerships  with  residents  near  the 
fishing  grounds,  supply  them  with  money,  let  them  buy 
beds  and  plant  the  oysters,  take  them  in  as  part  owners 
of  the  vessel  in  the  carrying  trade,  and  then  divide  the 
profits. 

The  Ne\y  York  trade  is  controlled  in  a  great   measure 


Oysters  and  othei"  Edible  Mollusca.  141 

by  the  weather.  If  the  nights  are  clear  and  cold,  the  side- 
walks dry,  and  the  stars  out,  the  consumers  throng  the 
retail  saloons,  and  the  result  is  an  assemblage  of  all  sorts 
of  vehicles  in  the  morning  at  the  lay-boat  stations  for  new 
supplies.  If  the  country  roads  are  in  prime  order,  and  the 
fast  horses  of  the  well-to-do  farmers  or  bloods  can  make 
good  time  to  the  village,  carrying  the  girls  on  supper  ex- 
cursions, the  dem.and  for  new  supplies  by  rail  is  increased. 
But  when  the  barometer  falls  to  29°,  the  stars  go  out 
of  sight,  the  roads  are  muddy  and  the  sidewalks  damp, 
the  demand  falls  off.  Singularly,  however,  the  prices  do 
not  fluctuate.  The  wholesale  prices  change  to  so  trifling 
an  extent  that  the  consumer  never  receives  the  benefit ;  if 
any  one  profits  by  a  fall,  it  is  the  retailer. 

The  oyster  trade  is  one  requiring  peculiar  and  delicate 
perception.  Yet  the  expert  who  catches  the  oyster  in  his 
left  hand,  taps  it  with  the  butt-end  of  the  knife  to  make 
it  insensible,  and  shatters  its  stony  lips  to  take  its  life, 
knows  as  soon  as  he  lifts  it  from  the  pile  where  it  came 
from,  how  old  it  is,  whether  it  is  a  Delaware,  Prince's  Bay, 
City  Islander,  or  has  grown  under  the  dashing  waves  of 
Rockaway.  He  knows,  too,  whether  it  will  open  good. 
The  wholesale  dealers  at  New  York  have  over  ;^6oo,ooo 
invested  in  the  oyster  trade,  and  receive  on  an  average 
2,500,000  bushels  per  annum.  During  the  warm  season, 
the  oysters  are  sent  by  rail  in  refrigerator  cars,  a  recent  . 
railway  improvement. 

On  some  single  days,  over  100,000  bushels  of  oysters 
have  been  taken  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  which  is  the 
greatest  oyster  bed  in  the  world,  and  is  said  to  be  inex- 
naustible. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  boats  are  engaged  in  oyster 
dredging  from  Baltimore,  which  bring  in  about  900  bushels 


142       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

to  the  cargo  ;  and  as  they  make  in  the  aggregate  6000 
trips  during  the  eight  months  of  the  season,  this  gives  a 
total  of  nearly  5,000,000  bushels  of  oysters,  worth  about 
i^  5  00,000. 

The  Nevvhaven  banks  have  a  very  high  reputation, 
and  this  place  ranks  next  to  Boston  in  importance  in  the 
oyster  trade.  Fair  Haven  is  the  great  oyster  mart  of  New 
England.  Only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  oysters 
here  are  natives.  They  are  fully  equal  in  quality  to  those 
imported,  but  cannot  be  raised  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
supply  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  trade.  Of  the  4,000,000 
bushels  imported,  about  1,600,000  are  brought  in  the  spring 
and  "  planted,"  while  2,400,000  are  imported  in  the  fall  and 
winter,  and  consumed  immediately,  some  of  the  largest 
dealers  using  as  many  as  150,000  bushels  yearly. 

It  is  estimated  that  4,000,000  bushels  of  oysters  are 
annually  carried  from  the  Virginia  v/aters  to  Fair  Haven  ; 
4,000,000  to  New  York  ;  2,000,000  to  Boston  ;  2,000,000  to 
Philadelphia  ;  2,000,000  to  Baltimore  ;  3,000,000  to  Provi- 
dence, etc.  ;  in  all,  more  than  a  score  of  millions. 

The  celebrated  Chesapeake  Bay  oysters  of  Am.erica  are 
now  regularly  received  in  Europe,  and  are  to  be  found  in 
the  markets  of  London  and  Paris.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  American  oysters,  differing  mainly  in  size,  ac- 
cording to  the  districts  from  which  they  come.  Between  the 
best  and  the  commonest  there  is  hardly  a  difference  of  25 
per  cent.  There  is  the  "  Morris  Cove  "  oyster,  which  comes 
from  New  Jersey,  and  is  the  kind  almost  exclusively  used 
in  New  York  and  the  neighbouring  districts  ;  the  "  Saddle 
Rocks,"  a  particularly  fat  variety  ;  the  "  Norwalks,"  from 
Connecticut ;  and  other  varieties  from  the  coasts  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland. 

The  city  of  Boston  plays  the  same  part  in  supplying 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca.  143 

the  Northern  States  as  Baltimore  and  Fair  Haven  do  for 
the  Central  and  the  Western. 

Baltimore  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  cities 
engaged  in  the  oyster  trade,  as  far  as  regards  interior  and 
foreign  transportation. 

Twenty  years  ago,  an  official  report  on  the  oyster  beds 
of  Baltimore  gave  the  aggregate  value  as  follows  : — 

Oysters  packed  in  tins  ...  ...  ...  ;^6cxD,ooo 

Consumed  in  the  neighbourhood  ...  ...      200,000 

Shells  converted  into  lime  for  agricultural  purposes       10,000 

Total         ...  ;^8oo,ooo 

They  obtain  all  their  oysters  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Patapsco  river,  a  great  portion  by  dredging  in  20  fathoms 
water  ;  these,  however,  are  not  so  large  as  those  taken  with 
tongs  in  the  numerous  shallow  inlets  and  bays,  and  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake.  When  planting  or  parking, 
they  take  small  oysters  from  deep  v/ater,  and  plant  them 
in  places  where  in  three  years  they  grow  to  a  very  large 
size,  without  being  in  the  least  affected  by  any  kind  of 
weather ;  consequently  the  increase  is  unfailing.  The 
number  of  vessels  employed  in  the  trade  then  amounted  to 
1000,  some  of  which  cost  ;^6oo,  and  were  capable  of 
carrying  3000  bushels. 

The  number  of  houses  engaged  in  this  business  was  then 
25 ;  the  number  of  hands  employed  in  opening  and  packing. 
2500.  In  some  establishments  3000  bushels  were  opened 
in  a  day,  and  in  all  the  establishments  17,000  bushels 
daily.  Of  this  quantity,  9000  bushels  were  packed  in  cans 
in  a  raw  state,  and  the  rest  pickled,  spiced,  and  hermeti- 
cally sealed  for  exportation  everywhere.  About  half  of  the 
packed  oysters  are  consumed  in  the  cities  of  the  Western 
States,  and  are  invariably  sold  for  cash.     Within   12  years 


144       ^/^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  business  has  increased  tenfold,  which  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  faciHties  of  transportation.  They  now  ship  raw 
oysters  from  Baltimore  to  South  America,  California,  and 
Australia,  besides  all  parts  of  Europe;  and  the  demand  will 
steadily  increase  as  they  become  better  known,  from  the 
fact  that  Chesapeake  oysters,  like  canvas-back  ducks,  owe 
their  superior  flavour  to  the  food  obtained  on  their  feeding 
grounds. 

The  oysters  of  the  Pacific  are  beginning  to  attract 
attention  in  British  Columbia,  and  the  cultivation  of  this 
mollusc  and  the  preservation  of  oysters  in  tins  lor  foreign 
markets  will  soon  become  an  important  industry  there. 

The  Chinese  have  a  mode  of  raising  oysters  on  bamboo 
screens  in  the  beds  of  rivers  in  the  southern  ports  of  the 
empire.  These  arc  prepared  for  keeping  in  the  following 
manner : — The  oysters,  when  taken  from  their  shells,  are 
placed  for  a  time  in  boiling  water,  and  taken  out  with  a 
skimmer.  They  are  then  exposed  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Oysters 
taken  from  the  rock  cannot,  it  is  said,  be  so  preserved. 

The  number  of  oysters  consumed  in  Victoria  is  very 
large,  and  averages  nearly  15,000,000  per  annum.  Each 
year's  return  manifests  a  decided  increase  over  its  pre- 
decessor, and  there  is  every  likelihood  of  this  number 
being  doubled  if  not  trebled  in  the  space  of  a  few  years,  so 
growing  is  the  passion  of  "  oyster-eating."  Oysters  are 
divided  there  into  two  classes,  viz.,  "  mud  "  and  "  rock."  Oi 
the  former,  there  are  several  kinds,  varying  in  quality 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  depth  of 
water  in  which  they  lie.  The  latter  is  generally  found  in 
shallow  water,  bordering  on  rocks,  and  is  a  more  delicate 
oyster  than  the  "mud."  Melbourne  is  supplied  from 
several  distinct  sources,  but  the  great  bulk  comes  from 
New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania.     A  few  are  also  received 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca.  145 

from  Port  Albert  and  Adelaide,  and  until  latterly  the 
Western  Port  beds  yielded  a  large  quantity.  The  oysters 
of  New  South  Wales  are  principally  "rocks,"  and  are  found 
in  almost  every  river  and  inlet  in  the  colony.  The  best 
come  from  the  Manning  river  and  Cape  Hawk.  Those 
coming  from  the  Hunter,  near  Newcastle,  are  very  small, 
and  but  seldom  used.  The  number  of  men  engaged  in 
the  New  South  Wales  fisheries  is  calculated  at  almost 
1000,  but  it  is  impossible  to  state  the  exact  number.  The 
Tasmanian  oysters  ("mud")  are  chiefly  found  in  the  bays  and 
inlets  on  the  southern  coast — the  best  coming  from  Port 
Esperance  and  Spring  Bay.  Those  brought  from  the 
Swan  Ports  are  very  inferior.  The  number  of  oysters 
imported  from  the  Tasmanian  fisheries  is  not  half  so  great 
as  it  was  some  years  ago  ;  and  there  cannot  now  be  more 
than  about  50  or  60  men  employed,  whereas  there  were 
formerly  more  than  three  times  that  number.  No  oysters 
whatever  have  been  received  from  Western  Port  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  though  from  what  cause  is  not  precisely 
known.  Formerly  there  was  a  fleet  of  21  sailing  vessels 
employed,  and  the  yield  then  amounted  to  over  10,000 
dozen  per  week.  The  few  received  from  Adelaide  vary  in 
quality,  but  none  of  them  possess  such  a  good  flavour  as 
.the  "  Sydney  rocks,"  Avhich  are  more  used  in  the  colony 
than  any  other  class  of  oysters. 

The  oyster  seasons  are  : — Of  Victoria,  from  the  ist 
February  to  the  30th  September  ;  but  this  season  is  con- 
sidered to  commence  too  early  and  end  too  soon.  The 
Sydney  rock  oysters  are  allowed  to  be  sold  all  the  year 
round.  The  Tasmanian  season  is  restricted  to  the  period 
intervening  between  the  ist  April  and  the  31st  October; 
but  any  party  is  allowed  to  gather  enough  for  his  own  con- 
sumption at  any  time. 


146       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Clams. — Many  molluscs  pass  under  the  name  of  clams. 
The  sand  or  soft  clam  of  the  New  England  States  is 
Mya  arenaria  ;  the  round  clam  or  hard-shell  clam,  Vemis 
inerccnaria ;  and  both  these  are  brought  to  market  as  food. 
The  sea  clam  is  the  Mactra  gigantea  and  M.  solidissima, 
Gould  ;  the  razor  clam,  Solcn  cnsis,  Lin. 

The  soft  clam  is,  next  to  the  oyster,  the  most  important 
bivalve  of  the  American  coast,  whether  we  view  it  as  a 
means  of  public  sustenance,  or  as  an  addition  to  the  fish- 
ing industry  of  the  country.  Its  great  abundance  on  the 
coasts  where  it  is  found,  the  good  market  it  commands,  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  obtained  from  the  banks  at  low 
tide,  all  render  it  a  most  valuable  source  of  sustenance  to 
the  poorer  classes.  Clam  beds  are  found  in  sheltered  parts 
of  the  coast,  or  at  least  in  places  where  the  action  of  the 
waves  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  change  the  character  of 
the  banks.  The  consumption  of  these  molluscs  is  con- 
siderable during  every  season,  but  especially  in  summer, 
along  the  entire  coast  of  the  Northern  States,  from  New 
York  to  Maine ;  but  nowhere  is  it  so  great  as  at  Boston, 
The  people  of  the  United  States  use  clams  in  a  variety  of 
culinary  preparations,  the  most  popular  of  which  is,  un- 
doubtedly, a  kind  of  soup  especially  esteemed  in  Boston. 

Round  clams  exist  in  great  abundance  on  the  American 
coast,  from  Cape  Cod  almost  to  the  extremity  of  Florida. 
They  are  generally  found  on  the  shores  of  gulfs  and  bays, 
and  of  the  mouths  of  large  rivers  which  are  less  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  waves  than  the  open  coast.  Their 
beds  are  at  a  depth  varying  from  6  to  25  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  at  low  tide.  Like  all  the  molluscs  of 
that  family,  they  prefer  a  large  proportion  of  mud  with 
the  sand  in  which  they  live. 

Round  clams  are  the  object  of  an  especial  culture  in 


Oysters  and  other  Edible  Mollusca.  147 

America,  designed  to  improve  the  rapidity  of  their  growth. 
Like  the  "  paires  doubles "  ( Venus  verrucosa)  or  clams  of 
the  Mediterranean,  they  are  never  as  delicate  in  flavour  as 
when  freshly  caught.  In  summer  the  consumption  of 
clams  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  is  very 
considerable,  much  greater  than  that  of  the  Mya  areitaria. 
Like  the  latter,  sold  in  their  natural  condition  or  out  of  the 
shell,  they  furnish  many  excellent  dishes,  the  most  esteemed 
of  which  is  clam  chowder.  Many  persons  eat  the  smaller 
specimens  raw  ;  and  when  flavoured  with  a  few  drops  of 
lemon  juice,  they  are  as  palatable  as  the  clovisses  {Tapes' 
virgmea  and  T.  deaissata)  and  the  "  paires  doubles " 
{Vejms  verrucosa),  which  are  the  especial  favourites  of  the 
people  of  Marseilles. 

Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  soft  clams  as  a  means  of 
sustenance  for  the  people  along  the  coasts,  they  are  still 
more  important  to  the  fisheries  of  the  country.  The 
Americans  have  for  a  long  time  been  aware  of  the  marked 
predilection  which  many  fish,  particularly  those  of  the  cod 
species,  manifest  for  the  flesh  of  clams,  under  whatever 
form  presented  to  them. 

Clams  are  used  for  bait,  either  alive  or  salted,  accord- 
ing as  the  fishery  is  on  the  coast  or  out  at  sea.  Many 
years  ago  it  was  estimated  that  40,000  bushels  of  clams 
were  consumed  in  the  preparation  of  salt  bait,  in  addition 
to  large  quantities  used  in  a  natural  state  by  the  coast 
fisheries. 

Cockles,  mussels,  periwinkles,  whelks,  and  other  molluscs 
are  largely  eaten  for  food  in  many  countries  of  Europe. 


PART    II. 

MARINE    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO 
INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

Enumeration  of  some  of  the  various  uses  of  marine  products — Animals — Shells 
— Isinglass — Fish  skins  and  leather — Fish  scales — Various  oils,  etc. 

Of  the  radiate  animals,  we  have  among  the  useful  ones  the 
edible  beche-de-mer  or  Holotlmria  (already  described),  the 
sea-eggs,  sea-urchins,  or  sea-chestnuts  {Echini),  which  are 
frequently  used  as  food  when  full  of  spawn,  and  star-fish 
for  manure. 

Among  those  which  are  ornamental  may  be  named 
the  stony  corals,  the  red  "organ-pipe"  coral  {Tubipora 
imisica),  sea-fans  and  gorgonas,  and  madrepores. 

The  vast  number  of  small  marine  animals,  particularly 
the  shell-fish  and  corals,  are  of  extreme  importance  to  the 
general  economy  of  nature,  acting  as  scavengers  ;  inasmuch 
as  they  in  the  ocean,  in  the  same  manner  with  insects  upon 
the  earth,  incessantly  destro}',  consume,  and  as  it  were 
metamorphose,  an  infinite  variety  of  noxious,  hurtful,  or 
superfluous  substances. 

To  man  they  are  in  so  far  serviceable  that  many  of  the 
mollusca,  or  naked  soft  worms,  and  the  shell-fish  are 
eatable,  some  forming  a  principal  article  of  diet  to  many 


152       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

navigators  and  inhabitants  of  seacoasts.     A  very  beautiful 
purple  dye  was   formerly  procured    to  some  extent  from 
certain  molluscs.     Sepia  and  Indian  ink  are  obtained  from 
the  peculiar  dark  fluid  of  the  cuttle-fish.     The  gall  of  the 
carp  is  used  in  Turkey  as  a  green  paint  and  in  staining 
paper.     The   byssus   of  certain    species    of  Pinna  affords 
a  kind  of  brown  silky  fibre  which  may  be  worked  up  into 
useful  articles.     Many  kinds  of  shells  contain  .pearls.     Red 
coral  is  an  important  article  of  trade,  particularly  in  the 
East    Indies.      Several    kinds    of   shells,    either    entire    or 
divided,  pass  current  as  money  in  Africa,  India,  and  other 
remote    nations.      From    portions    of    shells    the    North 
American  Indians  made  their  wampum — a  sort  of  currency 
which  serves  the  purpose  of  records.     Many  savage  people 
use  mussel,  snail,  oyster,  and  tortoise  shells  for  drinking- 
vessels,  spoons,  etc.     In  regard  to  works  of  art,  the  mother- 
of-pearl  oyster  and  many  mussel  and  snail  shells  are  cut 
like  onyx  into  cameos,  and  used  for  making  buttons.     The 
cuttle-fish    bone    is    employed    by    artists    and    workmen. 
Sponge  serves  a  variety  of  domestic  purposes.     Madrepore 
is  employed  for  paving  and  building  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Red  Sea.     Numerous  shells  and  corals  are  burnt  for  lime. 
Some  large  thin  shells  are  used  as  glass  in  the  south  of 
China  and  in  India.     Shells  are  among  the  most  common 
ornaments   of    savage    nations  ;    and    shell    flowers,    shell 
earrings,  shell  brooches  and    bracelets  are  worn  even   by 
females  in  the  more  civilized  countries. 

It  is  not  as  nourishment  only  that  fish  is  made  sub- 
servient to  commerce.  The  preparation  of  isinglass  affords 
to  some  countries  the  means  of  extensive  trade  and  specu- 
lation. Sole  skins,  if  clean,  sweet,  well  prepared,  and 
dried,  can  be  used  as  a  fining  agent,  and  are  sometimes 
employed    in    households    to    clarify   coffee.      It    may   be 


Introductory  Remarks.  153 

mentioned  that  the  stomach,  the  intestines,  and  also  the 
skins  of  different  kinds  of  fish  can  be  used  as  isinglass 
after  being  cut  and  submitted  to  the  action  of  boiling 
water,  and  then  pressed,  which  gives  the  substance  the 
appearance  of  thin  leaves,  resembling  parchment.  The 
skins  of  many  are  utilized.  Leather  is  largely  made  from 
seal  and  porpoise  skins,  and  also  prepared  from  scaled  fish 
by  the  North  American  Indians  ;  eel  leather  is  used  for 
whips  and  flail  thongs  ;  shagreen  or  shark  leather,  used  by 
the  Alaska  Indians  for  boot  soles  ;  there  is  also  a  sturgeon 
leather.  The  skins  of  Diodou  are  used  in  making  helmets, 
and  the  stomach  membranes  of  the  halibut,  in  Greenland, 
for  window  transparencies.  Parchment  is  made  from  the 
viscera  of  seals,  and  used  by  the  Eskimo  for  clothing,  bags, 
and  blankets.  They  also  employ  the  pharynx  of  the  seal  or 
walrus  as  leather  for  boot  soles.  Beluga  leather  is  dressed 
as  kid,  sole,  harness,  boot,  mail  bags,  belts,  and  pattern 
leather,  etc.  Walrus  leather  is  used  by  the  Eskimos  for 
harness,  tables,  thongs,  seal-nets,  and  in  Europe  for  cover- 
ing polishing  wheels.  The  Eskimos  also  use  sea-lion 
leather  to  cover  bidarkas,  and  for  garments  and  beds. 

Oil  is  largely  obtained  from  fish  for  medicine  and  use  in 
manufactures.  From  the  mammals  we  obtain — seal  oil,  in 
its  various  grades,  used  for  lubricating  ;  sea-elephant  and 
sea-lion  oil ;  dugong  oil  ;  oil  from  the  body  of  whales, 
grampuses,  and  porpoises,  employed  in  the  arts,  for  lubri- 
cating, painting,  etc.  ;  black  fish  and  porpoise-jaw  oil,  used 
in  lubricating  fine  machinery,  watches,  clocks,  and  guns; 
grampus  oil  and  sperm  oil,  used  in  lamps,  for  lubricating, 
as  an  emollient  in  medicine,  for  lip-salves,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  spermaceti.  The  fish  oils  comprise,  among 
others,  sun-fish  oil  and  cramp-fish  oil,  used  by  fishermen  for 
the  cure  of  rheumatism  ;  cod  oil  and  cod-liver  oil,  used  in 


154       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

medicine,  as  a  food  and  emollient,  and  in  lubricating  ; 
hake  and  haddock-liver  oil,  used  in  adulterating  cod-liver 
oil ;  pollock  oil,  used  by  the  Shetlanders  for  illumination  ; 
menhaden  oil,  used  in  currying  leather,  in  rope-making,  for 
lubricating,  as  a  paint  oil,  and  exported  to  Europe  for  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  for  smearing  sheep.  Herring  oil, 
white  fish  oil,  sturgeon  oil,  shark  oil,  and  many  other  oils 
obtained  from  fishes,  and  a  large  part  of  the  seal  and  black 
whale  oil  are  known  indiscriminately  as  fish  oil,  and  em- 
ployed for  various  manufacturing  uses.  Oulachan  oil  is 
used  by  the  Indians  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America, 
for  food  and  illumination.  Shark  and  skate  liver  oil,  includ- 
ing the  "  Rouen  oil,"  made  on  the  coast  of  Normandy  from 
the  liver  of  Rata  aqiiila,  R.  pastinaca,  and  R.  batis,  are  used 
like  cod-liver  oil. 

The  bones  and  debris  from  the  menhaden,  herring, 
cod,  and  other  fisheries  form  fish  guano.  The  scales  of 
fish  are  used  in  ornamental  work,  in  manufacturing 
flowers  and  other  fancy  articles.  Among  those  so  em- 
ployed are  the  scales  of  parrot-fishes  {ScaridcB  and 
LabridcB),  of  mullets  {Miigilidis),  of  .sheep's-head,  etc. 
{SparidcB),  of  drum  and  bass  fish  {ScicenidcB),  of  Serraitidce 
and  perches  [Percidce  and  Labracidce),  of  Lobotidce,  of 
tarpum  {Elopidce),  of  herrings  {Cliipeidd),  of  Cyprinidce ;  of 
eels,  used  in  the  north  of  Europe  to  give  a  pearly  lustre 
in  ornamental  house-painting  ;  of  gar  pikes,  used  by  Indians 
for  arrow  tips  ;  also  those  of  sturgeons,  for  implements. 
Pearl  white,  or  essence  d'Orient,  prepared  from  the  scales  of 
Albtu'iuts  liicidus  and  other  CyprinidcB  and  Clupeidce,\s  used 
in  making  artificial  pearls.  The  shagreen  of  the  trigger-fish 
{Batistes)  is  employed  in  polishing  wood  ;  that  of  sharks  as 
leather  and  for  polishing  purposes,  particularly  in  the 
manufacturing  of  quill  pens. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SPONGE  AND   THE   SPONGE   FISHERIES. 

Description  of  sponges — Two  scientific  divisions,  common  and  fine — Com- 
mercial grades — Distribution  of  sponges — Cup-shaped  and  fistular  sponges 
— American  sponge  fisheries — Mode  of  procuring  and  cleaning  them. 

Sponge  is  a  substance  with  which  almost  every  one  is 
familiar,  as  there  are  but  few  families  or  individuals  living 
in  civilized  communities  who  do  not  find  occasion  to  use  it 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  article  is  so  very 
.useful  that  a  large  number  of  inconveniences  would  arise  if 
it  could  not  be  obtained.  What  would  the  surgeon  do  .-• 
what  the  traveller  ?  what  the  housekeeper .''  And  yet  most 
of  those  who  use  sponges  in  an  indefinite  variety  of  ways 
all  their  lives  never  stop  to  consider  how  they  are  formed, 
whether  they  are  plants  or  animals,  or  what  are  their 
histoiy  and  habits. 

Sponges  consist  of  a  framework  or  skeleton,  coated 
with  gelatinous  matter,  and  forming  a  non-irritable  mass, 
which  is  connected  internally  with  canals  of  various  sizes. 
The  ova  are  very  numerous,  and  present  in  appearance  the 
form  of  irregular-shaped  granules,  derived  from  the  gela- 
tinous matter,  which  grow  into  ciliated  germs,  and,  falling 
at  maturity  into  the  small  canals,  are  then  expelled  by 
the  orifices.     When  alive,  the  body  is  covered  by  a  gela- 


156       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

tinoLis  film,  which,  being  provided  -with  ciHa,  causes  a 
current  of  water  to  pass  in  at  the  smaller  pores  and  out  at 
the  larger  apertures,  the  sponge  probably  assimilating  the 
nutritive  particles  which  enter  into  the  water. 


Fig. 


f'V 


Sponge  showing  the  outgoing  water  currents. 

A  monograph  of  these  polypes,  published  in  the  20th 
volume  of  "  Des  Annales  du  Museum,  Paris,"  enumerated 
141  species,  ranged  under  six  divisions. 

The  sponges  of  commerce  are  divided  into  two  scientific 
divisions  : — 

1.  Comprehending  the  common  sponges  {Spongia 
officinalis),  of  rounded  or  flat  form,  convex  beneath,  of  soft 
tissue,  more  or  less  tenacious,  large  pored  with  great 
orifices. 

2.  The  second  division  includes  the  fine  sponges 
{Spongia  usitatissinmm),  of  concave  or  cup-like  form, 
having  the  oscules  slender  like  hair,  and  the  pores  very  fine 
in  the  interior.    Of  these  there  are  34  species. 


Sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  157 

Sponges  are  found  abundantly  in  tropical  waters 
generally,  and  perhaps  nowhere  more  abundant  than  in  the 
seas  of  the  Australian  islands.  They  gradually  decrease  in 
numbers  towards  the  colder  latitudes  till  they  become 
entirely  extinct.  They  vary  much  in  shape.  Some  are 
beautifully  shaped  like  a  vase,  others  are  semi-cylindrical, 
others  nearly  flat  like  an  open  fan  ;  some  are  branched  like 
the  opened  fingers  of  a  hand,  and  are  called  glove  sponges, 
and  in  others  these  branches  seem  to  be  reduced  to  only 
one,  which  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  club.  These  vary- 
ing shapes  may  belong  to  one  species,  and  the  differences 
are  due,  so  far  as  known,  to  the  fact  that  the  first  men- 
tioned are  found  in  deep  water,  and  they  grade,  in  the 
order  described,  up  to  the  last,  which  grow  in  much 
shallower  water. 

The  commerce  in  sponges  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. From  a  very  elaborate  and  learned  paper  in  a 
recent  number  of  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History  on  the  North  American  Poriferae,"  with 
remarks  upon  foreign  species,  we  derive  the  following 
valuable  information  on  the  characteristics  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  commercial  sponges.  The  great  difficulty 
which  is  experienced  in  any  attempt  to  distinguish  species 
results  from  the  extreme  susceptibility  of  all  keratose 
sponges  to  any  change  in  external  conditions.  They 
appear  to  require  for  the  production  of  the  forms  in  abun- 
dance tropical  or  sub-tropical  seas,  and  attain  by  far  their 
greatest  development  in  the  number  of  the  forms  and 
species  in  the  West  Indian  seas.  The  typical  forms,  the 
commercial  sponges,  are  essentially  confined  to  the  waters 
of  the  Caribbean  Islands,  the  Bahaman  Archipelago,  and 
the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Florida  in  the  western 
hemisphere,  and  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas  in  the 


158       The  Cotnmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

other.  Australia  affords  a  few  forms  ;  and  some  species 
are  said  to  be  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Brazil. 
Bermuda  also  has  a  few  of  the  commercial  kinds,  which, 
according  to  Mr.  Goode's  report  and  his  suite  of  specimens, 
are  much  coarser  than  the  Key  West,  darker  in  colour, 
and,  in  fact,  just  about  intermediate  between  these  and 
those  of  Australia.  They  are  occasionally  found  in  the 
shops,  but,  as  a  rule,  are  used  only  by  the  fishermen 
themselves  about  their  boats,  the  Bahamas  sponges  being 
preferred  for  domestic  purposes  by  the  inhabitants.  It 
appears  that  the  finest  forms  grow  only  in  the  protected 
lagoons,  at  depths  varying  from  5  to  25  feet,  on  a  sandy 
bottom.  The  temperature  is  not  stated.  They  are  cured 
in  a  very  careless  manner  by  exposure  to  the  weather, 
a  process  which  doubtless  does  not  increase  their  value. 
The  true  Spongicu  are  all  shallow-water  forms.  In  the 
Mediterranean,  according  to  Von  Eckhel,  they  are  not  found 
below  30  fathoms,  and  in  American  seas  about  the  same 
probably,  though  not  fished  to  greater  depths  than  five 
fathoms.  The  fishery  is  principally  carried  on  in  the 
West  Indies  by  the  aid  of  a  sort  of  hooked  fork,  two 
shepherd's-crook-like  hooks  on  a  long  pole.  The  fisher- 
men cannot  so  successfully  work  at  considerable  depths 
with  this  instrument,  as  by  diving,  or  with  the  diving 
apparatus  or  armour,  and  various  forms  of  drags,  etc., 
employed  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  greater  part  of  the 
fishery  is  accomplished  between  the  depth  of  3  and  20  feet, 
according  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Palmer,  from  which  these 
remarks  are  principally  derived.  The  finest  qualities  of 
American  sponges  are  obtained  in  the  Bahamas,  the  prin- 
cipal depot  being  at  Nassau. 

The  process   of  preparation   is   not   so   careful   as   in 
Europe,  probably   owing   to   the   greater   coarseness   and 


sponge  atid  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  159 

cheapness  of  the  specimens.  The  actual  fishing  is  done 
from  boats,  generally  belonging  to  some  schooner  or  larger 
craft.  The  boats  are  sent  out  from  the  vessel  manned  by- 
two  men.  They  are  generally  sold  by  the  cargo.  The 
bases  are  clipped  off,  and  the  sponge  trimmed  with  shears 
and  packed  in  pressed  bales  for  transportation  to  New 
York  or  England,  where  they  are  largely  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  pilot  cloth,  hats,  etc.  The  coarser  kinds 
and  clippings  are  also  used  extensively  for  stuffing  mat- 
tresses, carriage  cushions,  etc.,  in  place  of  hair.  They  are 
not  of  sufficiently  good  quality  to  compete  with  the  Medi- 
terranean sponges,  and  are  therefore  rarely  employed  for 
domestic  purposes,  except  in  Great  Britain  and  the  coun- 
tries of  North  and  South  America.  The  fisheries  near 
shore  are  abandoned  in  the  winter  on  account  of  the  turbid 
state  of  the  water,  which  becomes  "  milky "  with  sus- 
pended coral  sand  during  the  more  tempestuous  months. 
A  more  limited  fishery,  however,  is  still  carried  on  at 
Anchor  Keys,  some  35  miles  outside  of  Cedar  Keys,  and 
in  other  places  where  the  water  is  stiller,  clearer,  and 
warmer  than  nearer  shore. 

The  commercial  grades  coincide  very  closely  in 
America  and  in  Europe,  but  it  is  easy  to  show  that  each 
of  them  may  be  considered  a  distinct  species  if  one  has 
an  inclination  to  multiply  in  this  direction.  The  grades 
are  glove  sponge  {Spongia  officinalis),  sub-species  Uibiili- 
fera  ;  wool  sponge  {Spongia  equina),  sub-species  gossypina  ; 
and  yellow  and  hard  head  (both  under  the  name  of 
Spotigia  agaricind),  sub-species  corlosia.  These  correspond 
with  remarkable  accuracy  to  the  three  principal  grades 
of  commercial  sponges  in  Europe,  which  are  the  bath 
sponge  {Spongia  officinalis),  the  horse  sponge  {Spongia 
equina),   and     the    zimocca    sponge    {Spongia     agaricina). 


i6o       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

This  result,  in  which  three  species  appear  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic  as  representing  alone  the  marketable  qualities 
of  the  genus  Spongia,  becomes  of  double  interest  when 
these  varieties,  or  local  species  as  they  might  be  called,  are 
compared  one  with  another.  It  is  then  found  that  the 
aspect  of  the  surface  is  closely  similar  in  each  of  the  three  ; 
that  sub-species  tubulifera  represents  Spongia  officinalis, 
sub-species  gossypina  offsets  Spongia  equina  in  the  same 
way,  and  lastly,  sub-species  corlosia  has  the  same  relation 
to  Spongia  agaricina.  In  order  to  make  it  still  more  con- 
vincing that  such  a  relationship  is  not  the  result  of  an 
artificial  arrangement,  it  becomes  necessary  to  describe 
some  of  the  facts  more  at  length.  First,  their  similarities 
of  surface  and  aspect  are  precisely  the  same  as  those  which 
experience  has  led  me  to  adopt  in  the  designation  of 
species  in  this  group.  Secondly,  their  differences  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  difference  in  habitat,  and  are  of  varietal 
and  not  of  specific  value,  according  to  the  accepted  use  of 
the  term  species. 

The  whole  group  of  Keratosa  is  confined  to  seas  in 
which  the  differences  observable  between  the  winter  and 
summer  isotherms  are  not  excessive.  None  are  found 
north  of  Cape  Hatteras  and  Bermuda,  and  doubtless  a 
similar  limit  occurs  to  the  southward  of  the  equator  ;  at 
least,  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  the  only  specimens  in  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  are  from  the  island  of 
Fernando  Noronha.  On  the  Pacific  shore.  Southern  Cali- 
fornia and  Chili  are  the  extreme  points  so  far  known.  On 
the  opposite  coast  of  the  Atlantic  they  are  recorded  from 
England  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  also  at  the  island 
of  Teneriffe.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  they  are  found  all 
along  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  at  the  Mauritius,  and  on  the 
shores    of  India.      They   have   been    described    from    the 


Sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  i6i 

southern  part  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotz,  on  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent, and  specimens  are  not  uncommon  on  the  coasts  of 
AustraHa  and  New  Zealand.  In  the  Pacific  they  have  been 
found  at  the  Kingmills  Islands  and  Hawaiian  Islands. 
The  extreme  outlying  form  to  the  north,  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic,  is  the  excessively  coarse  Dysidca  fragilis,  with 
its  fibres  loaded  with  debris.  Those  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  Southern  Australia  also  belong  to  the 
coarser  genera.  The  species  cited  by  Miklucho  Maclay 
from  the  Sea  of  Okhotz  seems  to  be  one  of  the  PJiyllo- 
spongidce,  but  there  is  no  analysis  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  skeleton,  only  the  external  form  being  described  and 
figured  in  his  article  on  the  sponges  of  the  North  Pacific 
("  Memoires  de  I'Acad.  Imp.  de  St.  Petersburg,"  vol.  75, 
No.  3).  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  finer  skeletons 
of  the  Keratosa,  those  of  the  genus  Spoiigia,  are  only  to 
be  sought  in  the  intermediate  zone,  where  the  waters  are  of 
equable  and  high  temperature.  Again,  in  examining  the 
species  of  this  genus  with  relation  to  each  other,  it  becomes 
equally  evident  that  they  are  finest  and  most  numerous  in 
archipelagoes,  or  off  coasts  which  are  bordered  by  large 
numbers  of  islands,  or  long  reefs,  or  in  sheltered  seas. 

Mr.  Gurdon  Saltonstall  states  that  the  sponges  near 
Nassau  lie  on  reefs  very  much  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  waves,  often  30  miles  from  land,  and  always  in 
currents,  sometimes  running  three  or  four  knots  an  hour. 
Such  currents  are  usual  wherever  groups  of  islands  confine 
the  tide  water  within  certain  definite  channels,  and  they 
have  also  the  effect  of  concentrating  the  floating  food  in 
the  channels,  or  wherever  tides  meet.  Both  of  these  con- 
ditions are  essential  to  successful  sponge  growth,  namely,  a 
continuous  renewal  of  aerated  water  and  a  plentiful  supply 
of  food,  and  are  probably  partly  the  cause  of  their  abun- 


1 62       The  Commercial  Pi^odticts  of  the  Sea. 

dance  in  such  places.  This  entirely  agrees  with  obser- 
vations made  upon  many  species  on  the  North  American 
coast  of  Chalinince  and  HalicJiondrida.  Constant  reference 
to  physical  influence  is  also  noticeable  in  the  map  prepared 
by  Von  Eckhel,  and  in  the  method  of  classification  adopted 
by  him.  The  marketable  qualities  are  described  as  "  sorts," 
and  the  different  "  sorts  "  designated  by  letters,  as  "  sort  A," 
"sort  B,"  and  so  on.  These  sorts  he  has  found  it  most 
convenient  to  arrange  according  to  localities,  and  thus  under 
some  "  sorts "  we  have  all  the  three  species  represented  ; 
all,  however,  from  the  same  place,  and  all  having  some 
local  peculiarity  which  makes  them  either  of  superior  or 
inferior  quality.  The  author  also  frequently  refers  to  the 
slimy  character  of  the  bottom  as  a  reason  for  inferiority 
or  dark  colour.  On  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic 
this  is  also  shown  by  the  great  difference  in  point  of  colour 
and  fineness  between  the  Nassau  and  Key  West  sponges. 
The  former  are  lighter  coloured,  finer,  more  elastic,  and 
more  durable,  than  the  same  species  at  Key  West,  where 
the  colour  is  so  dark  that  it  designates  at  once  the  locality 
from  which  the  specimen  came. 

Again,  the  shallow-water  sponges  are  coarser  than  the 
deep-water  forms.  This  is  probably  due,  in  part,  as  in 
other  species,  to  the  quantity  of  sediment,  v/hich  is  of 
course  less  in  deep  than  in  shallow  water,  as,  for  example, 
at  Key  West  in  the  winter  time.  Mr.  Saltonstall,  who  made 
inquiries  among  the  spongers,  states  that  no  fine  qualities 
of  any  sponges  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  milky 
water,  but  all  the  finer  qualities  of  the  marketable  kinds  in 
the  deepest  water  in  which  the  species  occur,  except,  perhaps, 
in  the  case  of  the  reef  sponge.  Glove,  reef,  and  hard  head 
are  fished  in  shallow  waters,  greatest  depth  two  fathoms,  and 
the  other  and  generally  finer  marketable  varieties  from  two 


sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  163 

to  five  fathoms.  This  fact  also  explains,  in  a  measure,  but 
not  wholly,  the  greater  coarseness  of  American  sponges  as 
compared  with  the  European  ;  for  though  it  may  be 
assumed  from  the  examination  of  the  skeletons  that  Medi- 
terranean sponges  are  much  less  exposed  to  turbid  waters, 
and  though  it  may  be  shown  by  the  microscope  that  the 
primary  fibres  contain  less  debris,  this  does  not  wholly 
explain  their  greater  fineness  and  elasticity.  We  may 
attribute  this  either  wholly  or  partly  to  climatic  con- 
ditions. 

If  either  the  temperature  or  density  of  the  water  had 
been  exceptional,  we  might  have  gained  some  additional 
information,  but   as    it  is,  we  cannot   assume   that  either 
cause  would  have  been  sufficient  to  account  for  the  absence 
of  the  Spongier  from  the  Euxine.     According  to  Carpenter, 
in  his  articles  on  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea,  there 
is  a  strong  current  continually  flowing  at  the  depth  of  20 
fathoms  from  the  Mediterranean  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  a 
return  surface  current  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean.    The  sponges  occur  necessarily  in    the  shallower 
waters  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  since  they  are  said  by  Von 
Eckhel  to  be  fished  for  mostly  with  the  harpoon,  and  are 
probably  exposed  more  or  less  to  the  influence  of  the  sur- 
face current.     Under  these  circumstances,  they  must  very 
often  be  able  to  endure  a  degree  of  cold  during  the  winter, 
and  an  amount  of  change  in  the  density  of  the  water,  for 
which  it  becomes  difficult  to  account,  even  taking  into  con- 
sideration   the   inferior   quality  of  their   skeletons.      It  is 
possible,  however,  that  the  water  of  the  northern  part  of 
the    Black    Sea   may   not    afl"ect  the    temperature   of  the 
southern  part  to   such   an   extent  as  would   at  first  sight 
appear  probable,  and  that,  notwithstanding  the  lower  tem- 
perature of  the  northern  shores,  the  general  temperature  of 


164       The  Commercial  Prodiicts  of  the  Sea. 

the  surface  water  during  the  winter  immediately  east  and 
west  of  the  Bosphorus  may  not  fall  below  55°  as  a 
minimum. 

The  northern  shore  of  the  yEgean  Sea  and  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  are  populous  with  sponges,  and 
yet  the  former  throughout  its  whole  extent,  and  the  latter 
from  Ragusa  to  Istria,  have  nearly  the  same  average  winter 
temperature,  and  possess  a  colder  climate  in  winter  than 
the  coast  of  southern  Italy  or  Spain,  where  no  Spongi<z 
exist.  Again,  upon  consulting  the  invaluable  little  Eckhe- 
lian  pamphlet,  we  find  that  the  sponges  correspond  in 
quality  to  this  climatic  change.  The  sort  found  at  the 
head  of  the  ^gean  is  said  to  be  the  Spongia  officinalis 
alone,  and  to  have  a  "  heavy,  hard,  close,  very  hairy 
skeleton,  often  containing  slime,"  and  it  is  further  added 
that  it  is  not  much  liked,  and  is  usually  fished  with  the 
harpoon.  The  same  species  exist  also  alone  at  correspond- 
ing localities  along  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  and  at  the 
extreme  locality,  the  island  of  Istria,  upon  the  limit  of  its 
distribution,  it  is  said  to  be  very  rare,  the  form  to  be  ugly, 
the  skeleton  hard,  the  colour  dark.  Farther  south,  along 
the  Dalmatian  coast,  it  becomes  abundant,  finer  in  texture 
and  of  a  lighter  colour,  but  it  is  still  inferior  to  the  more 
southern  or  Levantine  variety.  In  considering  such  classes 
of  facts,  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  habitat  of  a 
certain  sort  of  variety  may  largely  determine  the  quality  of 
the  skeleton,  even  where  the  temperature  may  be  very 
favourable.  Thus,  to  the  south  of  Quarnero,  among  the 
islands,  a  much  better  quality  of  Spongia  officinalis  occurs 
than  in  the  milder  sea  about  the  Ionian  Islands,  which,  as 
Eckhel  remarks,  is  probably  attributable  to  the  slimy 
character  of  the  bottom. 

The  finest  sponges  in  the  Mediterranean,  those  of  the 


Sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  165 

Levant  and  ofif  the  Syrian  and  Tripoli  coasts,  are  found 
between  the  average  aerial  winter  temperature  of  6^°  and 
70°,  and  the  isochrymals  of  50° — 57°,  and  at  no  time  of  the 
year  are  these,  which,  as  stated,  by  Von  Eckhel,  occur  in 
the  deeper  water  at  a  distance  from  the  coast,  probably  ex- 
posed to  a  lower  temperature  than  60°. 

In  describing  the  species  of  this  genus  I  have  made 
comparisons  between  three  principal  Mediterranean  and 
three  of  the  American  commercial  sponges,  in  order  to 
show  the  very  evident  relationship  of  these  forms.  Schmidt 
describes  five  Mediterranean  species  in  all,  and  may  be 
right  ;  but  so  far  as  I  can  understand  his  descriptions,  with 
the  aid  of  a  fine  collection  of  specimens  purchased  by  Pro- 
fessor Baird  for  the  National  Museum  from  Mr.  Isaacs,  of 
New  York,  I  cannot  make  more  than  three  out  of  the  ordi- 
nary commercial  varieties,  which  were  fully  represented,  and 
appeared  to  include  the  entire  range  of  his  five  species. 
Von  Eckhel's  work  upon  the  "  Badeschwamme,"  although 
a  purely  commercial  treatise,  has  the  same  view  of  the 
affinities  of  the  sponges,  based  upon  the  observations  of  the 
fishermen  and  dealers,  and  the  distribution  of  the  species. 
The  latter  is  quite  remarkable.  Only  one  species,  the 
Spongia  officinalis,  Lin.,  Adriatica,  Schm.,  is  found  on  the. 
eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic  and  coast  of  Greece,  from 
Trieste  to  the  Bay  of  Nauplia.  From  Nauplia  and  the 
island  of  Candia  to  Eritra,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  two 
occur,  Spongia  officinalis  and  Spongia  agaricana,  Pall., 
Zimocca,  Schm.  From  Eritra,  opposite  the  island  of  Chios, 
to  Tripoli,  all  three,  Spongia  officinalis,  agaricana,  and  egnina, 
are  fished,  except  at  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  the 
zimocca  sponge  does  not  live.  From  Tripoli  to  Tunis  two 
only  occur,  Spongia  officinalis  and  equina,  and  from  thence 
to  Ceuta,  at  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  a  very  peculiar  dark- 


1 66       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


coloured   and    coarse    variety  of   the    Spongia    equina   is 
obtained,  called  the  gerbis  sponge. 

The  distribution  indicates  the  naturalness  of  the  three 
species,  and  shows  also  that  the  dealers  have  to  do  with  a 
vast  variety  of  forms.  They  can,  however,  pick  out  the 
three  species  and  their  varieties  without  hesitation,  and  I 
was  amused  and  interested  at  finding  that  the  method 
pursued  was  precisely  similar   to  that   which  I  had  been 


Fig, 


Outer  surface  of  different  kinds  of  sponge  (natural  size).  A,  Cup-shaped 
variety  ;  b,  honeycomb  sponge  ;  C,  toilet  sponge  ;  D,  Bahamas  sponge,  partly 
in  sections,  showing  projecting  extremities  and  internal  tubular  character. 

obliged  to  adopt  in  distinguishing  empirically  the  various 
sub-species  and  species  of  Spongia.  They  are  led  mainly 
by  the  general  aspect  of  the  surface.     This  has  a  distinct 


sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  167 

appearance  in  every  species,  and  though  much  altered  by 
the  greater  or  less  development  of  superficial  tufts,  is  much 
more  constant  than  any  other  character.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  surface  takes  its  aspect  largely  from  the 
number,  distribution,  and  size  of  the  pores,  cloacal  orifices, 
superficial  canals,  and  primary  fibres.  These  characteristics, 
of  course,  are  directly  correllated  with  all  that  is  important  in 
the  internal  anatomy  of  the  animal,  and  should  therefore  be 
more  constant  than  the  length,  form,  or  composition  of  the 
tufts  of  fibres,  or  the  shape  of  the  whole,  which  are  capable 
of  great  modification,  according  to  the  locality  in  which  the 
specimen  may  be  found.  The  forms  of  Spongia  officinalis 
may  vary  from  cup-shape  to  fistular,  and  to  irregular  or 
lump-like.  The  latter  are  usually  coarser  and  looser  in 
texture,  the  superficial  tufts  are  longer  and  more  numerous, 
and  they  approximate  more  closely  to  the  coarser  varieties 
of  sub-species  tuhiilifcra  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  in  the 
external  aspect  of  the  surface  and  the  apertion  of  the 
interior,  than  the  finer  varieties. 

The  texture  of  the  poorest  variety  of  the  Mediterranean 
sponges  is,  however,  always  better  for  domestic  purposes 
than  the  best  of  the  corresponding  American  varieties, 
being  firmer  and  more  elastic  ;  and  it  is  also  to  be  remarked 
that  the  last  never  have  the  cup-shape,  which  is  so  common 
in  the  sub-species  Mcditerranea,  and  that  the  fistular 
form  takes  its  place.  The  forms  of  Spongia  agaricina, 
sub-species  Zhnocca,  vary  from  saucer-shape  to  irregular, 
lump-like  growth.  As  m  the  Spongia  offici)ialis,  it  may  be 
shown  that  these  aberrant  forms  are  quite  similar  to  the 
aberrant  or  formless  varieties  of  the  sub-species  punctata  of 
Florida,  as  regards  the  aspect  of  the  surface  ;  but  these  also 
are  nevertheless  much  finer  than  the  finest  varieties  of  the 
latter.     Here,  again,  the  platter  or  saucer  shape,  which  is 


1 68       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

a  modification  of  the  cup-shape,  is  absent.  Spongia  equina 
exhibits  similar  degrees  of  variation  in  the  texture  of  the 
surface  and  the  form.  There  are  no  proper  cup-shaped 
specimens  among  the  American  varieties  of  sub-species 
gossypina,  but  in  place  of  these  the  fistular  form.  These 
occur  generally  associated  in  clumps,  more  or  less  densely 
filled  up  into  heads,  and  solid,  but  sometimes  the  tubes  are 
almost  isolated.  The  younger  specimens  of  this  species 
have  a  very  loose  and  open  texture,  due  to  the  approxima- 
tion and  large  size  of  the  openings,  and  to  a  less  degree 
this  is  also  to  be  remarked  in  the  gerbis  sponge.  The 
former  approximate  in  aspect  to  the  coarser  qualities  of 
the  American  species,  and  so  also  does  the  latter,  which 
has  very  nearly  the  same  colour  and  aspect  as  the  dark- 
coloured  Key  West  specimens,  but  it  is  not  so  coarse  or 
dark.  It  seems,  then,  that  there  are  three  sub-species  of 
commercial  value  in  the  Mediterranean,  which  find  their 
v,^ay  into  the  New  York  and  European  markets.  The 
coarsest  varieties  of  the  European  sponges  are  finer,  firmer, 
and  more  elastic  than  the  finest  of  the  corresponding 
American  sub-species.  This  is  directly  ti'aceable  to  the 
larger  amount  of  foreign  matter  included  in  the  primary 
threads,  the  looser  mesh  of  the  tissue ;  the  fibres  are  also 
comparatively  coarser  and  the  large  cloacal  channels  more 
numerous  throughout  the  mass. 

Thus  the  difi"erent  varieties  of  sub-species  gossypina 
differ  in  an  exactly  similar  way  from  each  other,  and  from 
the  third  form,  sub-species  ccrcbrifonuis ;  they  differ  in 
texture,  in  surface,  and  also  in  habitat,  the  finer  kinds,  as 
stated  previously,  being  found  in  the  deeper  water,  equally 
removed  from  excessive  heat  and  excessive  sediment. 
These  three  sub-species  run  together  by  means  of  specimens 
of   the   coarser   varieties,   which   cannot   be   distinguished 


sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  169 


Fig.  6. 


Cup-shaped  sponges  in  natural  position,  rooted  to  rock. 


1 70       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

from  each  other  with  any  certainty,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  corresponding  sub-species  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
Caribbean  Seas  were  connected,  through  the  coarser,  and 
not  by  the  aid  of  the  finer  varieties.  It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, that  besides  the  general  differences  previously  noted, 
the  cup-shape  form  is  not  found  in  the  American  sub- 
species, whereas  it  is  the  prevalent  form  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean sub-species.  A  cursory  examination  of  a  large 
collection  will,  however,  satisfy  any  one  that  the  shape  does 
not  necessarily  correllate  with  a  finer  or  a  coarser  skeleton, 
but  probably  with  a  more  or  less  extended  base  of  attach- 
ment and  local  peculiarities,  such  as  currents,  and  the  kind 
of  bottom,  etc.,  which  have  not  been  investigated  in  this 
connection. 

TJie  American  Sponge  Fisheries. — The  coarser  de- 
scriptions of  sponge  entering  into  commerce  are  procured 
about  the  Bahamas  banks  and  the  coast  of  Florida. 

Sponge  fishing  is  said  to  have  become  a  very  profitable 
business  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Key  West,  Florida.  The 
article  is  mostly  procured  there  by  the  natives  of  the 
Bahamas,  who  best  understand  the  business  of  sponges  ; 
and  its  principal  grounds  are  Rock  Island,  a  scope  of 
land  30  miles  long  by  seven  miles  broad,  lying  off 
Taylor  county  and  60  miles  north-west  from  Cedar 
Keys  ;  thence  from  the  mouth  of  the  Withlacoochee,  past 
Martin's  Reef  to  near  Tampa  Bay,  a  distance  of  perhaps 
300  miles. 

The  number  of  small  schooners  engaged  is  between 
75  and  100,  with  an  average  of  from  5  to  15  men  to 
each,  and  an  average  of  three  dingies  to  each  vessel. 
The  vessels  built  for  the  purpose  are  half  oval-shape,  and 
as  flat  as  is  consistent  with  due  regard  to  sailing  qualities. 
Dingy,   or   dincey,  is    the   small  boat   used  to  gather  the 


sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  171 

sponge,  and  is  usually  managed  by  two  men.  There  are 
about  600  men  daily  engaged  in  gathering  when  the 
weather  is  fair.  Quiet  weather  and  calm  sea  are  always 
taken  advantage  of.  These  dingies,  when  likely  to  be 
called  into  service,  are  towed  Indian  file  at  the  stern  of  the 
larger  vessel.  Each  sponger  is  provided  with  a  "  sponge- 
hook,"  made  of  iron,  with  three  prongs,  a  socket  fitting  on 
a  pole  one  and  a  half  inches  thick  and  from  18  to  35 
feet  long  ;  also  a  "  water-glass,"  a  bucket  with  a  pane  of 
glass  fitted  in  the  bottom.  This  adds  to  the  power  of 
vision  by  excluding  the  light  from  behind,  enabling  the 
sponger  to  penetrate  with  his  eye  at  least  10  or  15  feet 
deeper  into  the  water.  The  sculler  propels  the  boat  along 
very  slowly;  in  the  mean  time  the  sponger  sits  hanging 
over  the  side  of  the  dingy  with  his  head  at  the  bucket 
held  by  the  hand  and  his  eye  penetrating  the  depths  below, 
taking  in  all  that  passes  within  his  line  of  vision.  As  soon 
as  he  sees  his  legitimate  prey,  he  raises  his  sponge-hook 
with  his  right  hand,  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  the  sculler, 
still  keeping  his  eye  at  the  glass,  grapples  the  sponge,  then 
puts  aside  the  glass  and  hauls  it  in. 

Frequently  his  sight  is  darkened  and  view  obstructed 
by  the  intervention  of  the  monsters  of  the  deep.  A  huge 
shark,  a  sawfish,  or  perhaps  an  enormous  devil-fish,  very 
often  large  schools  of  beautiful  fish,  "  Spanish  mackerel," 
"  cavallie,"  "  sailor's  choice,"  "  pompeno,"  pass  beneath  him 
in  such  numbers  as  to  seriously  interfere  with  his  occupation. 
Again,  his  sight  is  regaled  with  lovely  coral  formations, 
deep  fissures  and  grottoes,  gem-lined  within. 

When  a  dingy  load  is  gathered,  the  sponges  are  taken 
to  the  vessel,  where  they  are  placed  roots  down,  eyes  up, 
until  they  are  dead.  This  part  of  the  sponge  fishing  is  the 
most  disagreeable,   and    causes   the   vessel    to   be   almost 


172        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

unbearable,  the  sponge  exhuming  a  bloody,  slimy  matter 
of  most  offensive  odour. 

The  vessel  having  secured  a  full  cargo  makes  for  port, 
when  the  sponges  are  taken  ashore  and  buried  in  the  sand 
in  a  place  technically  called  a  "  crawl."  It  is  generally 
constructed  of  a  paling  of  oak  staves  driven  in  the  sand, 
and  the  lee  of  some  island  is  selected  as  the  spot.  The 
sponges  are  left  a  week  or  longer,  when  the  slimy  flesh,  as 
it  may  be  called,  having  rotted  off,  the  sponger  goes  into 
the  crawl  with  a  "bruiser"  (a  small  paddle),  and  with  a 
few  strokes  on  the  top  of  the  sponge,  clears  it  from  the 
filth  and  skin  ;  after  which  it  is  assorted  into  the  dif- 
ferent varieties,  collected  upon  strings  of  convenient  length 
and  bleached  in  the  sun,  when  they  are  ready  for  the 
market. 

The  sponge  on  the  bar  grows  something  like  a  bed  cf 
cabbages  or  mushrooms,  and  presents  a  beautiful  appear- 
ance, very  dark  and  seemingly  having  eyes.  The  sponge 
reefs  in  deep  water  are  called  "feather  bars,"  from  the 
feathery  or  fan-like  appearance  of  the  coral,  very  often 
seen  growing  up  through  the  sponge,  and  in  such  places 
the  larger  sponges  are  generally  found.  The  different 
kinds  of  sponge  found  on  this  coast  are  known  as  "  log- 
gerhead," "sheep-wool,"  "turtle-grass,"  and  "yellow."  The 
sheep-wool  and  yellow  only  are  marketable.  The  latter 
is  worth  \s.  per  pound  ;  sheep-wool  averaging  45-,  per 
pound. 

There  are  two  sponge  seasons  proper,  during  the  winter 
and  summer  months ;  should  the  water  continue  clear, 
however,  it  then  lasts  all  through  the  year. 

The  common  practice  is  to  gather  sponge  on  shares, 
the  vessel  getting  one-third  and  the  crew  two-thirds,  the 
provision   bill   being   assessed    in    the   same   ratio.      The 


sponge  and  the  Sponge  Fisheries.  i  73 

sponges  gathered  in  Florida  waters  are  taken  from  the 
fishermen  at  Key  West,  Cedar  Keys,  and  Apalachicola, 
The  amount  of  money  paid  out  per  annum  is  as  follows  : — 
At  Key  West,  ^24,000;  Cedar  Keys,  ;^  1 3,000  ;  Apala- 
chicola, iJ"ii,ooo — a  total  of  ^48,000. 


174       ^/^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   SPONGE   FISHERY   OF   THE  BAHAMAS. 

The  Bahamas  sponge  grounds — Statistics  of  the  fishery— Gathering  and  cleaning 
the  sponge — Eleven  sorts  specified — Value  of  the  exports  from  Bahamas — 
New  uses  for  sponge  —  Bleaching  sponges — Reproduction  and  trans- 
planting sponges. 

Bahamas  Sponge.  —  About  500  vessels  are  constantly 
engaged  in  the  trade,  3000  men  find  employment,  and 
through  it  ^20,000  to  ^^'30,000  sterling  are  annually  circu- 
lated and  spent  in  the  colony. 

The  great  sponging  grounds  lie  to  the  east,  west,  and 
south  of  New  Providence.  Although  often  far  from  the 
shore,  and  at  a  depth  of  20,  40,  or  even  60  feet,  it  can 
easily  be  descried  through  the  transparent  waters  on  the 
clear  sandy  bottoms,  from  which  it  is  raked  or  grappled  up. 

From  William's  Cay,  Andros  Island,  the  fine  qualities 
of  glove  sponge  are  obtained.  This  kind  is  used  principally 
for  surgical  purposes,  and  is  sent  generally  to  America, 
as  the  Mediterranean  supplies  Europe  with  this  description 
of  sponge. 

The  process  of  cleaning  the  sponge  here  is  veiy  simple. 
It  is  kept  on  the  decks  of  the  vessel  until  it  is  quite  dead, 
when  it  is  thrown  into  a   "  crawl  "  made  for  the  purpose, 


The  Sponge  Fishery  of  the  Bahamas.        175 

through  which  the  tide  flows,  and  bft  to  soak  from  four  to 
six  days,  when  it  is  beaten  with  a  fiat  piece  of  stick,  and 
then  becomes  quite  clean.  A  few  years  ago  the  practice 
was  to  bury  the  sponge  for  20  days,  by  which  time  the 
gelatinous  animal  matter  was  destroyed  or  eaten  away  by 
the  insects  that  swarm  in  the  sand.  This  has  been  entirely 
done  away  with  ;  the  present  custom  is  more  simple,  and 
cleans  the  sponge  better.  The  sponge  is  then  assorted  and 
compressed  in  powerful  presses  like  cotton.  Each  bale  or 
package  has  fastened  to  it  outside  a  sample  to  show  the 
quality. 

Strange  to  say,  spongers,  as  a  rule,  are  not  very  good 
judges  of  the  quality  of  the  sponge  they  gather.  They 
seldom  seem  to  know  good  from  bad  sponge.  The.  conse- 
quence is  that  much  of  very  inferior  quality  is  brought  to 
market,  and  realizes  very  low  prices.  This  is  an  evil  which 
could  easily  be  remedied.  The  gathering  and  cleaning  of 
common  sponge  entails  as  much  trouble  and  fatigue  as  the 
collecting  of  what  is  valuable  and  good.  Spongers  should 
be  more  observant  of  the  various  qualities  of  sponges. 
They  ought  to  know  a  sound  from  a  sucked  sponge — a 
sponge  of  fine  texture  and  good  shape  from  one  of  bad 
shape  and  coarse. 

Bahamas  sponge  is  classified  into  1 1  sorts.  From  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  Andros  Island,  and  all  over 
the  Exuma  banks,  the  fine  large  sheep-wool  or  honeycomb 
sponge  is  chiefly  found.  This  kind  is  known  as  the  bath 
sponge,  and  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  and  merchantable. 
The  other  kinds  are  the  reef  or  fine  toilet,  the  boat,  the 
velvet,  yellow,  hard  head.  Long  Island,  grass,  common  or 
glove,  and  refuse.  None  of  these  are  very  valuable,  ex- 
cepting the  velvet  sponge,  which  is  obtained  from  the  west 
end   of  Bahamas    and    William's    Cay.     From    these    two 


1 76       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

places  this  kind  of  sponge,  although  coarse,  hard,  and  com- 
mon wherever  else  obtained,  almost  equals  the  far-famed 
Turkish  sponge  in  texture,  and  is  very  nearly  as  valuable 
as  the  sheep-wool.  From  the  extensive  banks  to  the  south- 
east of  Andros  Island,  a  very  inferior  and  coarse  velvet 
sponge  is  gathered,  which  is  brought  in  large  quantities  to 
market ;  being  tough  and  soft,  it  is  much  used  in  stables. 
It  does  not  realize  a  high  price,  but  the  sponging  vessels 
more  than  make  up  for  the  inferior  quality  by  the  im- 
mense quantity  which  can  easily  be  obtained.  New  tracts 
of  sponge  are  seldom  found.  Spongers,  as  a  rule,  seem 
to  prefer  to  sponge  upon  the  old,  well-known  grounds, 
which,  by  being  frequently  searched,  are  consequently 
nearly  worked  out.  There  are  unquestionably  immense 
fields  of  sponge  all  over  the  banks  that  yet  remain 
undiscovered — sources  of  future  wealth  which  will  be 
opened  up  in  time  to  those  who  seek  them.  Sponge  is 
taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  here  by  means  of  a  hook 
attached  to  a  long  staff.  The  length  of  the  staff  required 
is  usually  25  feet.  The  best  qualities  of  sponge  are  found 
in  the  deepest  water,  excepting  the  fine  glove. 

In  1875  great  exertion  was  made  to  procure  the  better 
classes  of  sponge,  viz.,  wool,  reef,  velvet,  and  boat.  The 
demand  for  these  kinds  was  somewhat  greater,  and  the 
prices  ranged  higher.  It  is,  however,  more  and  more  appa- 
rent to  those  who  watch  the  lots  as  they  arrive  in  the 
market,  that  the  proportion  of  sponges  of  suitable  size  for 
the  trade  is  decreasing  gradually  ;  and  unless  new  beds  are 
discovered,  or  the  coarser  kinds,  of  which  large  quantities 
exist,  can  be  utilized,  or  the  fisheries  of  Cuba  be  opened  to 
the  Bahamas  spongers  so  as  to  allow  time  for  the  young 
sponge  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these  islands  to  attain 
sufficient  growth,  a  large  number  of  those  engaged  in  the 


The  Sponge  Fishery  of  the  Bahamas.        177 

business  will  have  to  withdraw,  as  even  now  it  hardly  com- 
pensates them  for  their  labour. 

The  rapid  strides  made  in  sponging  within  the  Bahamas 
group  appears  almost  mcredible.     It  only  commenced   in 
1 841.     The  early  stages  of  the  trade  a  quarter  of  a  cen 
tury  ago,  and  its  progress  since,  are  shown  in  the  following 
statistics  : — 

Value  of  the  Exports  from  the  Bahamas. 


Cwts. 

Value. 

1849  ... 

— 

i:2,2i7 

1850  ... 

— 

5>7oo 

1851 

— 

...  14,000 

1852  ... 

— 

11,257 

1855    ... 

...    2399 

9,615 

1856  ... 

1800 

6,723 

1857  ... 

...    2657 

...  11,025 

1858  ... 

...   3357 

17,254 

1866  ... 

...   8630 

...  40,000 

1869  ... 

...   3SS7 

...  28,000 

1870  ... 

...   2836 

— 

I87I  ... 

— 

...  14,868 

1873    ... 

...   5000 

32,938 

1874    ... 

...   2472 

15,551 

1875    ... 

...   1940 

15,638 

About  half  the  quantity  collected  is  shipped  to  the  United 
States,  and  half  to  England. 

Before  sponges  pass  into  commerce  they  are  trampled 
on,  pressed,  washed  a  great  many  times  in  salt  and  fresh 
water  frequently  changed,  until  the  gelatinous  mucus  with 
which  they  are  covered  has  disappeared.  They  are  then 
passed  through  boiling  water,  with  the  view  of  ridding  them, 
if  possible,  of  the  peculiar  smell  arising  from  the  animal 
matter  attached  to  the  fibrous  tissues. 

To  bleach  sponges,  they  are  steeped  in  a  dilute  solution 
of  sulphuric  acid  of  i  to  i"03  degrees,  and  they  are  left  to 
steep  five  or  six  days,  taking  care  to  press  them  from  time  to 


1 78       The  Coiftmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


time.     It  is  necessary  before  the  bleaching  to  remove  any 

calcareous  matter  which   may  adhere  to  the  sponges,   by 

soaking  them  for  about  an  hour  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  following  is  the  chemical  analysis  of  sponge  : — 

Carbon  ...  ...  ...  ...     47'l6 


Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Iodine 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 


6-31 
16-15 
26 '90 
I -08 
0-50 
1-90 


If  sponges  were  more  generally  abundant  in  commerce 
and  somewhat  cheaper  in  price,  many  more  uses  might  be 
found  for  them.  Thus,  they  would  make  excellent  material 
for  stuffing  beds  and  furniture — a  use  to  which  they  have 
already  been  put  in  America — for  large  and  white  tissues 
for  purifying  and  filtering  liquids,  paper  stuff,  etc. 

One  of  the  uses  to  which  sponge  has  of  late  years  been 
applied  in  America  is  to  make  what  is  termed  elastic 
sponge  for  stuffing  in  upholstery  purposes.  The  raw 
sponge  is  received  in  hard,  dirty  masses,  filled  Avith  sand 
and  bits  of  shell.  Being  soaked  in  a  large  tank  of 
water,  it  expands  into  such  condition  that  its  quality 
may  be  determined,  and  it  is  then  sorted  into  tM^o  kinds — 
the  "  soft "  for  mattress  stock,  and  the  "  hard  "  for  cushions. 

The  cleansing  process,  which  is  an  exceedingly  impor- 
tant one,  then  begins  in  another  room.  In  order  to  effect 
this,  the  sponge  is  first  cut  and  washed,  by  passing  for  an 
hour  through  a  huge  tube,  in  which  there  is  a  series  of 
knives,  through  which  the  sponge  is  made  to  pass  by  means 
of  the  movement  given  to  the  water  by  a  wheel.  The 
water,  too,  is  constantly  changing,  so  that  by  this  process 
the  sponge  is  nicely  cut,  and  its  filth  separated  in  part.     It 


The  Sponge  Fishery  of  the  Daharnas.        1 79 

is  next  soaked  for  20  minutes  in  a  tank  of  water,  con- 
taining 2°  (hydrometer)  of  soda  ash  and  heated  to  150°. 
It  is  then  passed  into  a  tank  containing  a  hot  solution 
of  very  strong  detergent  soap,  where  it  is  soaked  for 
half  an  hour  with  constant  and  violent  agitation.  It  then 
returns  to  the  first  tub,  where  it  is  washed  another  hour 
and  cut  more  finely.  The  cleansing  process  is  then  com- 
plete, and  after  the  water  has  been  pressed  out  by  pass- 
ing through  rollers,  it  is  carried  by  the  elevator  to  the 
"  drying-room,"  two  stories  above,  where  a  high  degree  of 
temperature  is  maintained,  and  it  is  dried  in  large  revolving 
cylinders.  It  is  then  clean  and  without  smell,  but  hard  and 
inelastic  in  character,  and  in  that  condition  totally  valueless 
for  the  purpose  of  stuffing. 

It  was  at  this  point  that  the  inventor's  skill  was 
necessary.  The  pores  of  the  sponge  closed  when  the  water 
had  evaporated,  and  no  permanent  elasticity  could  be 
had  unless  these  were  held  open  permanently.  Glycerin, 
being  a  non-evaporative  substance,  was  found  to  answer 
the  purpose.  The  remainder  of  the  process  is  then  as 
follows  : — The  dry  hard  sponge  is  placed  in  a  solution  of 
glycerin  and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  about  half  and 
half,  and  after  passing  through  heavy  rollers  it  is  again 
dried  in  the  cylinders.  The  aqueous  portion  then  evapo- 
rates, and  leaves  the  bits  of  sponge  dry  and  sweet,  and  so 
permeated  with  the  glycerin  that  a' permanent  elasticity  is 
maintained.  It  is  then  at  last  taken  to  the  packing-room, 
highly  compressed  into  bales  of  about  40  lbs.  each,  and  is 
ready  for  market. 

An  enterprise  was  started  in  the  United  States  in  1873, 
for  manufacturing  the  coarser  sponges,  sent  as  grass,  glove, 
and  refuse,  into  a  sort  of  felting  to  be  laid  under  carpets. 
Large  quantities    of  these   kinds  were    purchased   in    the 


i8o       The  Commei^cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Bahamas  early  in  1874;  but  the  demand  ceased  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  year,  and  the  manufacture  appears  to  have 
failed. 

Persons  may  well  be  cautioned  against  buying  cheap 
sponges  from  itinerant  venders  in  the  streets,  which  have 
probably  done  duty  in  hospitals,  stables,  or  for  other  vile 
uses,  and,  even  if  they  have  been  chemically  washed  and 
bleached,  can  scarcely  be  considered  wholesome.  Sponges 
which  have  been  used  in  bathing  wounds  are  liable  to 
retain  a  disagreeable  odour ;  while  bacteria,  monads,  and 
various  contaminating  matters  may  be  found  in  them.  To 
obviate  the  evil,  the  infected  sponge  is  impregnated  with 
a  solution  of  four  parts  of  permanganate  of  potash  to  100 
parts  of  water ;  passing  it  next  through  a  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  then  washing  with  water.  The  sponge 
recovers  its  primitive  state,  and  even  its  marine  odour  and 
the  tissue  is  improved. 

The  Societe  d'Acclimatation  of  Paris,  early  in  1862,  sent 
out  M.  Lamiral  to  the  coast  of  Syria,  with  a  view  to  obtain 
sponges  for  transplantation.  On  his  return,  in  Sep- 
tember of  that  year,  he  presented  a  report.  In  this  he  dis- 
tinguishes three  kinds  of  sponges  for  which  there  is  a 
demand — the  fine  and  soft  sponge,  called  abiand ;  the  fine 
and  hard  sort,  called  acJunar ;  and  lastly,  the  common  sort, 
called  cabar  by  the  Arabs.  These  sponges  are  found  in 
the  Levant  within  the  36th  and  33rd  degrees  of  latitude  : 
that  is,  between  Alexandretta  and  Saida. 

It  is  now  universally  acknowledged  that  sponges  belong 
to  the  animal  kingdom,  and  are  an  aggregate  of  cellules 
built  up  by  gelatinous  polypi  similar  to  those  which  con- 
struct madreporae,  porites,  and  other  polypifers.  When  the 
sponge  is  first  gathered  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  it  is 
covered  with  a  black  but  transparent  gelatinous  substance, 


The  Sponge  Fishery  of  the  Bahamas.        i8i 

resembling  vegetable  granulations,  among  which  micro- 
scopic white  and  oviform  bodies  may  be  distinguished. 
These  are  the  larvae  destined  to  perpetuate  the  species. 
When  arrived  at  maturity,  they  are  washed  out  by  the  sea 
water  which  incessantly  flows  through  the  sponge  ;  they 
then  swim  along,  by  the  aid  of  the  vibrating  cilia  or  hairs 
with  which  they  are  provided,  until  they  reach  a  suitable 


Fig.  7. 


Sponges. 

rock,  to  which  they  attach  themselves,  and  there  commence 
a  new  life.  This  emigration  of  the  larvae  from  the  parent 
sponge  occurs  about  the  end  of  June  and  the  beginning  of 
July.  The  fine  qualities  of  sponges  are  chiefly  found  at 
the  depth  of  1 5  fathoms  or  thereabout ;  the  common 
sponge  lies  at  depths  varying  between  20  and  30  fathoms. 

At  Tripoli  (on  the  coast  of  Syria,  not  of  Africa)  M. 
Lamiral  engaged  some  divers,  who  commenced  operations 
on  the  2 1  St  of  May.      The  sponges  gathered  were  imme- 


1 82       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

diately  placed  in  boxes,  through  which  a  stream  of  sea 
water  was  constantly  made  to  flow,  the  animal  matter  being, 
of  course,  left  on  them,  and  protected  from  injury.  These 
sponges  arrived  at  Marseilles  on  the  17th  of  June;  thence 
they  were  taken  to  Toulon  and  the  islands  of  Hyeres, 
where  stone  troughs,  with  five  sponges  in  each,  were  sunk 
in  different  places. 

During  the  past  few  years,  Dr.  Oscar  Schmidt,  Professor 
of  Zoology  at  the  University  of  Gratz,  has  employed 
several  weeks  of  the  early  summer  in  artificially  producing 
and  rearing  the  bath  sponge.  His  labours  have  met  with 
such  success  that  his  system  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Austrian  Government,  and  is  now  carried  on  on  the  coast 
of  Dalmatia. 

It  has  for  some  time  been  a  well-known  fact  that  several 
families  of  zoophytes  have  such  great  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion, that  a  portion  of  one  will  grow  and  form  on  an  entire 
new  body.  This  property  has  been  taken  advantage  of  by 
Dr.  Schmidt,  his  process  being  to  cut  the  sponge  into 
pieces,  fasten  each  portion  to  a  pile,  and  immerse  it  in  the 
sea.  The  pieces  then  grow,  and  eventually  from  each  one 
a  spherical  sponge  is  obtained.  According  to  the  estimates 
of  Dr.  Schmidt,  a  small  piece  of  sponge  at  the  end  of  three 
years  will  represent  a  value  of  ^d.  The  total  cost  of  raising 
4000  sponges,  including  the  interest  on  the  expended 
capital  for  three  years,  is  estimated  at  £^  %s.,  and  the 
income  at  about  £\6,  leaving  therefore  a  net  profit  ot 
nearly  £'^.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  practice  of  this 
branch  of  industry  will  be  the  means  of  considerable 
benefit  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Idrian  and  Dalmatian 
coasts. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SPONGE   FISHERIES   OF   THE    MEDITERRANEAN. 

Sponge  trade  of  the  Ottoman  Islands — Market  prices  of  sponge^Number  of 
boats  employed — Fishing  grounds  on  the  eoast  of  Candia,  Syria,  and 
Barbary — Statistics  of  the  fisheries — Operation  of  diving — Diving-bells 
and  dresses  now  used — Imports  of  sponge  from  the  Mediterranean — -Total 
imports  of  sponge  into  the  United  Kingdom — French  trade  in  sponge — 
Silicious  sponges. 

TJie  Sponge  Trade  of  the  Ottoman  Islands. — It  appears 
that,  with  i&w  exceptions,  in  which  the  owners  of  sponge 
boats  have  capital,  all  the  funds  required  for  the  equipment 
of  these  boats  are  furnished  by  native  money-lenders,  and 
that  important  foreign  capital,  especially  British  and 
French,  has  latterly  been  invested  in  diving  apparatus 
since  the  introduction  of  this  new  mode  of  fishing  for 
sponges  in  these  islands.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  a  large 
French  firm,  whose  operations  in  this  trade  were  on  a  very 
extensive  scale,  have  of  late  somewhat  reduced  their  .trade, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  use  of  British-made  machines 
continues  to  increase,  and  it  is  mentioned  that  there  is  a 
decided  preference  on  the  part  of  the  natives  to  work  with 
British  rather  than  with  French  diving  apparatus.  The 
whole  of  the  machines  now  employed  in  the  Ottoman 
islands  is  upwards  of  lOO.     Owing  to  the  depressed  prices 


1 84       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


at  which  sponges  have  been  sold  during  the  last  i&w  years, 
and  which  have  prevented  divers  from  paying  their  debts  to 
the  native  money-lenders,  the  latter,  although  in  possession 
of  bills  for  important  sums  of  money,  have  not  a  sufficiency 
of  cash  to  equip  all  the  boats  suitable  for  the  sponge 
fishery.  Notwithstanding  the  adverse  circum.stances,  the 
quantity  of  sponges  obtained  of  late  has  exceeded  that  of 
former  years,  in  consequence  of  the  more  abundant  crops 
and  improved  diving  apparatus.  At  the  island  of  Halki, 
for  instance,  where  10  years  ago  the  produce  in  sponges 
was  hardly  ;^  10,000  a  year,  it  amounts  now,  with  the  same 
number  of  boats,  but  working  with  diving  apparatus,  to 
nearly  ^20,000,  thus  showing  a  very  important  augmenta- 
tion. It  is  mentioned,  however,  that  the  produce  in  sponges 
seems  more  than  sufficient  for  the  demand  ;  and  if  all  the 
available  boats  in  these  islands  could  procure  the  required 
money  to  enable  them  to  go  fishing,  the  extra  quantities  of 
sponges  which  would  then  encumber  the  markets  would 
lower  the  price  of  the  article  to  rates  which  would  prove 
ruinous  to  the  divers. 

The  average  market  prices  of  sponges  for  the  year  1872 
are  shown  per  oke  (equal  to  2|  lbs.)  in  the  subjoined  table: — 


Countries. 

Fine. 

H 

oneycomb. 

Hard  brown. 

s. 

d.         s. 

d. 

J. 

d.        s. 

d. 

J. 

d.      s.      d. 

Bengazi    ... 

40 

0 

17 

6 

8 

0 

Mandruha 

48 

0  to  64 

0 

19 

0  to  21 

0 

10 

0  to  12      6 

Syria 

29 

0  „  32 

0 

II 

0   ,,   12 

6 

4 

0  „    5    0 

Caramania 

24 

0  „  32 

0 

9 

6  „  II 

0 

3 

3  ..    4    0 

Cyprus     

II 

0  „  12 

0 

Crete        

24 

0  „  32 

0 

II 

0  ,,  12 

b 

Rhodes,  and   other  Otto- 

man isles         

24 

0   ,,   -^2 

0 

8 

0  „    9 

6 

Greece     

12 

6  „  16 

0 

6 

3  m    8 

0 



Bengazi  and  Mandruha  sponges  are  not  sold  by  weight, 


sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.       185 

but  by  piece  ;  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  however,  their 
prices  arc  proportioned  to  others.  Bengazi  fine  sponges  are 
exceedingly  scarce. 

The  prices  quoted  in  the  foregoing,  although  higher 
than  those  of  the  two  preceding  years,  are  still  rather 
low,  and  Hellenic  sponge  boats,  which  used  to  bring  and 
sell  their  crops  in  the  markets  of  the  Sporades,  now 
abstain  from  doing  so.  In  fact,  owing  to  the  reduced  prices 
offered  in  these  islands  for  sponges,  several  of  the  most 
enterprising  native  sponge-dealers  decided,  a  few  years  ago, 
instead  of  selling  their  sponges  in  the  local  market,  to  con- 
vey them  to  Europe,  and  retail  them  on  their  own  account 
from  place  to  place.  There  is  not  a  single  country — even 
Sweden  and  Norway — which  these  sponge-dealers  have  not 
visited,  in  order  to  sell  their  goods.  A  few  of  them  jour- 
neyed even  as  far  as  America  ;  while  some  settled  in  London, 
where  their  countrymen  ultimately  bought  the  quantities 
which  they  had  not  been  able  to  dispose  of  in  their  peregri- 
nations. These  attempts  have  been  so  far  successful.  It  is 
stated  that  the  value  of  sponges  sent  annually  to  Great 
Britain  is  no  less  than  ;^70,ooo. 

The  principal  article  of  export  from  the  Ottoman 
Archipelago  is  sponge.  The  number  of  boats  employed 
varies,  ranging  from  400  to  600  in  the  year.  The  latter 
number  may  be  said  to  be  thus  distributed,  as  belonging  to 
the  different  islands  : — 


Calmynos 
Symi  ... 
Halki 

Castel  Rosso 
Leros 
Stampalia 
Telos 
Cassos 


254 
190 

40 

30 
12 

7 
2 

600 


1 86       The  Commej'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

As  there  are  seven  men  to  each  boat,  the  number  of  men 
engaged  is  about  4200. 

The  sponge  fishing  grounds  are  on  the  coast  of  Candia, 
Syria,  and  Barbary.  The  average  depth  at  which  sponges 
are  found  is  30  fathoms  ;  those  of  an  inferior  quahty  are 
found  at  lesser  depths.  The  sponge  fishing-boats  in  the 
island  of  Calmynos  amount  to  nearly  260,  employing  1600 
men  and  boys.  These  boats,  called  "  scafi,"  are  on  an  average 
six  tons  each,  carrying  from  six  to  seven,  and  sometimes 
eight  men,  of  whom  two  are  rowers. 

The  proceeds  from  the  sponge  obtained  are  divided  into 
shares,  the  divers  receiving  a  whole  share,  and  the  rowers 
two-thirds  of  a  share.  A  good  diver  will  make  from  eight 
to  ten  dives  during  the  day. 

The  sponge  is  covered  with  a  thin,  tough,  black  cuticle, 
inside  of  which  there  is  a  white  liquid  like  milk,  and  of  the 
same  consistence.  The  sponge  in  this  state  presents  a  very 
different  appearance  to  what  it  does  when  freed  from  these 
extraneous  substances.  The  annual  value  of  the  sponges 
taken  by  the  Calymniotes  amounts  to  about  ^2500.  The 
finest  are  sent  to  Great  Britain  ;  the  common  and  coarser  to 
France,  Austria,  and  Constantinople. 

The  sponge  fishery  of  Turkey  has  made  a  great  advance 
by  the  introduction  of  diving  apparatus.  The  quality  fished 
in  the  Sea  of  Marmora  is  of  second-rate  quality,  and  is 
shipped  to  England,  and  a  part  to  Trieste  and  Germany. 

The  following  shows  the  value  in  round  numbers  of  the 
sponges  sold  at  Rhodes  in  1861 : — Fine,  ^41,000;  common, 
£6z,ooo;  coarse,  ^7000;  total,  ;6'i  11,000.  Part  of  the 
sponges  fished  in  the  autumn  of  i860  were  sold  in  the 
early  part  of  1 861,  at  450  piastres  per  oke  for  fine,  120  for 
common,  and  60  for  coarse,  which  are  the  highest  ever 
reached   for  the  fine  and  coarse  qualities.      Towards   the 


Spojige  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.         1 8  7 

Fig.  S. 


Syrian  sponge  tishcrs. 


1 88       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

end  of  the  year,  the  prices  declined  nearly  one-fourth.  The 
crop  of  1 86 1  was  abundant  ;  the  proportion  of  fine  sponges 
was  larger,  and  of  a  better  quality  than  in  former  years. 
The  divers  say  that  the  same  quantity  are  not  now  found 
as  ten  years  ago,  so  it  must  be  inferred  that  they  do  not 
grow  as  fast  as  they  are  fished.  The  amount  sent  to  each 
country  was  in  the  following  proportion,  out  of  36  parts  : — 
Great  Britain,  13;  France,  15^;  Austria,  ^2)  ^"*^  Con- 
stantinople, 2  ;  total,  36.  In  1867  30  cwt,  valued  at  ;^70O, 
were  exported  from  Turkey. 

The  total  value  of  the  sponges  obtained  on  the  coasts 
of  Syria  is  ;^20,000  to  ^25,000,  which  seems  to  be  about 
the  average  of  past  years.  The  production,  however, 
appears  to  be  falling  off  through  excessive  fishing.  Some 
250  to  300  boats  are  at  present  employed  in  this  industry, 
manned  by  1200  to  1500  men.  The  centres  of  production 
are  Tripoli  and  Batronn  on  the  coast  of  Mount  Lebanon, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  the  best  qualities  are  found. 
The  fishing-boats,  from  1 8  to  30  feet  long,  are  each  manned 
by  a  crew  of  four  or  five  men,  one  of  whom  is  especially 
engaged  for  the  purpose  of  directing,  while  the  rest  are 
divers.  The  diver,  naked  of  course,  wath  an  open  net 
round  his  waist  for  holding  the  sponges,  seizes  with  both 
hands  an  oblong  white  stone,  to  which  is  attached  a 
rope,  and  plunges  overboard.  On  arriving  at  the  bottom, 
the  stone  is  deposited  at  his  feet,  and  the  man,  keeping 
hold  of  the  rope  with  one  hand,  grasps  and  tears  off  with 
the  other  the  sponges  within  reach,  which  he  deposits  in 
his  net.  He  then,  by  a  series  of  jerks  to  the  rope,  gives 
the  signal  to  those  above,  and  is  drawn  up.  No  knife, 
spear,  or  instrument  of  any  kind  is  used.  The  depth  to 
which  the  diver  descends  varies  from  5  to  30  fathoms, 
each  equal  to  an  ordinary  man's  height. 


sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.        189 

Although  marked  by  a  great  variety  of  quality  and 
size,  sponges  may  be  generally  classified  as  the  fine,  white, 
bell-shaped  "  toilet  sponge ; "  the  large  reddish  variety, 
known  as  ''  eponge  de  venise  "  or  "  bath  sponge  ;  "  and  the 
coarse  red  sponge,  used  for  household  purposes,  cleaning, 
etc.  France  takes  the  bulk  of  the  finest  qualities,  while 
the  reddish  and  common  sponges  are  sent 'to  Germany 
and  England. 

The  fisheries  of  the  Lebanon  employ  120  boats,  manned 
by  550  men.  The  annual  yield  varies  in  value  between 
£^4000  and  £6^0Q. 

The  value  of  sponges  directly  exported  from  the 
Sporades  is  about  ;^90,ooo  additional.  Formerly,  almost 
the  whole  quantity  of  sponges  was  sent  from  the  islands 
of  the  Sporades  to  Rhodes  for  transhipment  to  Europe  ; 
but  since  the  English  steamers  call  at  those  islands, 
sponges  are  sent  direct. 

On  the  coasts  between  the  latitudes  32°  20'  and  ^i''  20', 
the  qualities  of  soft  and  hard,  fine  and  venise  sponges,  are 
mixed  and  fished  for  together,  at  about  the  same  depth, 
from  4  to  15  fathoms.  Beyond  this  depth  the  venise 
sponge,  which  is  mixed  with  the  other  two  kinds  only  in 
the  proportion  of  about  one-third,  is  more  abundant,  and 
constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  fishery.  At  a  depth  of  20  to  30 
fathoms,  this  sponge,  of  a  large  size,  is  almost  exclusively 
found.  The  prices  paid  have  been — for  bath  or  common 
sponges,  according  to  quality,  from  40  to  60  piastres  per 
oke  (equal  to  2f  lbs.);  fine  sponges,  from  120  to  200 
piastres. 

The  sponges  fished  at  Mandruha,  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
are  always  sold  by  the  piece.  The  prices  paid  for  them  have 
been — bath  sponges,  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  piastres 
a  piece  ;  fine  sponges,  from  four  to  eight  piastres  a  piece  ; 


iQO       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

zimocca,  or  coarse  sponges,  from  15  to  18  paras  a  piece. 
In  sponge  transactions,  tlie  rate  of  the  Turkish  pound  is 
115  piastres;  and  of  the  pound  sterling,  125  piastres. 
They  still  continue  to  send  sanded  sponges  to  England. 

The  sponges  fished  by  diving  apparatuses  are  not  so 
good  as  those  fished  by  neck-divers,  these  last  going  to 
deeper  waters  ;  the  sponges  there  being  of  a  superior 
quality.  They  therefore  always  cost  from  1 5  to  20  per  cent, 
more  than  the  former  ones.  Although  the  diving  appa- 
ratuses secure  a  more  abundant  crop,  they  are  getting 
unpopular,  owing  to  the  many  accidents  which  are  to  be 
deplored  every  season,  the  divers  using  them  exceeding 
the  depth  prescribed. 

The  total  number  of  diving  apparatuses  imported  from 
France  and  Great  Britain  during  the  last  10  or  12  years  is 
about  250,  but  not  more  than  no  are  actually  at  work. 
The  gears  for  these  machines,  which  are  annually  renewed, 
are  generally  imported  from  England.  The  total  number 
of  sponge  fishing-boats  (including  also  those  with  diving 
apparatuses)  belonging  to  Rhodes  and  the  Sporades 
Islands,  is  about  700,  employing  6000  men.  During  the 
year  1874,  only  512  boats  were  sent  to  this  fishery,  of 
which  96  were  supplied  with  diving  apparatuses. 

The  sponge  fishery  in  Tunis  is  most  active  in  the 
months  of  December,  January,  and  P'ebruary,  as,  during 
the  other  seasons,  the  spot  where  the  sponges  are  found  is 
covered  with  dense  masses  of  seaweed.  The  tempests  of 
November  and  December  clear  away  the  latter,  and  allow 
the  sponges  to  be  seen.  The  fishery  has,  however,  two 
seasons  —  one  commencing  in  March  and  finishing  in 
November  ;  the  other  occupying  the  rest  of  the  year.  In 
the  summer  season  the  production  is  small,  because  diving 
apparatus  is   then  necessary,  and  can  only  be  employed 


Sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.        191 

where  there  is  a  rocky  or  other  firm  bottom  ;  but  the  Arabs 
search  along  the  coasts,  feehng  for  the  sponges  with  their 
feet  beneath  the  masses  of  tangled  weeds.  The  sponges 
which  they  find  are  generally  of  an  inferior  kind,  as  they 
cannot  go  into  any  depth  of  water.  The  success  of  the 
work  of  sponge-getting  depends  upon  the  sea  being  calm. 
There  are  not  more  than  40  or  50  days  during  the  winter 
season  which  are  favourable. 

The  Arabs  who  inhabit  the  coasts,  the  Greeks,  and 
principally  those  of  Kranidi,  near  Nauplia,  and  the  Sicilians, 
all  engage  in  the  sponge  fishing,  but  the  Greeks  are  con- 
sidered the  most  adroit  and  the  Arabs  the  least  so. 

The  gathering  is  performed  by  means  of  a  trident,  or 
'' arth"  a  kind  of  dredge,  similar  to  that  used  for  taking 
oysters.  The  Arabs  employ  boats  called  "  sandah,"  with 
crews  of  four  to  seven  persons,  one  of  whom  only  uses  the 
harpoon.  As  soon  as  this  man  sees  a  sponge  the  boat  is 
brought  to  a  stand  ;  the  work  is  carried  on  to  the  depth 
of  15  to  35  feet.  The  Greeks,  although  very  expert  divers, 
also  use  the  harpoon,  but  they  employ  small  and  very  light 
boats,  carrying  only  the  harpooner  and  the  sculler.  The 
former  explores  the  bottom  of  the  sea  by  means  of  a 
kind  of  telescope — a  tin  tube  about  14  inches  in  diameter 
and  20  inches  long,  with  a  thick  glass  at  the  lower  end. 
The  object  of  this  tube  is  to  get  rid  of  the  surface 
oscillations  and  allow  the  fisherman  to  see  the  bottom. 
The  Greeks  exhibit  sometimes  extraordinary  dexterity 
in  getting  sponges  from  a  depth  of  60  feet  with  short 
harpoons  ;  they  hold  in  their  hands  three  or  four  harpoons, 
which  they  throw  with  such  extraordinary  rapidity  and 
precision,  that  scarcely  has  one  harpoon  disappeared  be- 
neath the  water,  when  the  second  strikes  its  upper  end 
and  adds  to  the  force  of  the  propulsion  ;   the  third  is  in 


192       The  Commercial  Prodtids  of  the  Sea. 


the  same  way  struck  into  the  second,  and  so  on.  Neither 
the  Arabs  nor  the  Sicilians  avail  themselves  of  either 
of  the  above  methods  of  using  the  harpoon  or  of  the  wave 
tube. 

The  sponge  fishery  is  considered  to  be  capable  of  great 
development,  and  the  danger  of  exhausting  the  supply  is 
not  great,  as  a  new  sponge  is  said  to  take  the  place  of  one 
removed  within  twelve  months. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  Turkey  and 
Mediterranean  sponges  into  the  United  Kingdom  for  a 
series  of  years  : — 

lbs.  Value. 

1851  ...     ...   189,828 — 

1852  ...     ...   160,621  ...     ...  — 

1S53   205,924 — 

1854   224,787  ;^70,246 

1855   339.985   140,164 

1856   313.287 172,308 

1857  ...      ...   318,676   ...      ...   164,650 

1858  287,681  157,751 

1859  ...    ...  345,818  ...    ...  218,161 

i860   ...    ...  411,111  ...    ...  270,410 

1861  ...    ...  340,506  ...    ...  108,782 

1862  348,924 74,833 

1863   377.1"  69,074 

1864   431,906 53.168 

1866  ...    ...  321,199  ...    ...   41,477 

1867  ...    ...  320,032  ...    ...   31,415 

1S6S   356,131  61,817 

1869   660,685  85,751 

1870   453.819 I13.3S4 

The  imports  have  not  been  officially  recorded  since. 

The  supplies  are  received  principally  through  the  four 
channels  of  France,  Greece,  Turkey  proper,  Italy,  and 
sometimes  from  Malta  and  Egypt. 

The  sponges  shipped  are  of  three  qualities — fine,  common, 
and  coarse.  In  the  fine  qualities  there  is  but  one  in  ten  of 
the  first  or  superior  quality  ;  the  rest  are  of  a  second  or 


sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.      193 

inferior  fine  quality.  Of  the  common  sponges  there  is  one 
in  four  of  a  first  quaHty  ;  the  rest  are  of  a  second  or 
common  quaHty.  Of  the  coarse,  one-half  are  of  a  first 
quality,  and  the  other  half  of  a  second  quality.  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  fine,  common,  and  coarse  kinds 
of  sponges  may  be  divided  into  two  qualities  each. 

The  total  imports  of  sponge  into  Great  Britain  in  1840 
were  78,500  lbs. ;  in  1841,  58,931  lbs. ;  in  1855,  471,871  lbs. 
The  quantity  and  value  of  the  imports  of  sponge  into 
the  United  Kingdom  since  have  been  as  follows  : — 


1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1S70 


Quantity, 
lbs. 

544,882 
474>748 
540,172 
694,128 

S95.3<J9 
980,259 

997,447 

1,221,673 

837,159 


Computed  value. 

;^  I  00,  204 

77,907 

60,278 

103,780 

96,768 

86,201 

119,917 

156,965 

160,162 


No  return  published  since. 

The  following  is  the  French  classification  of  commer- 
cial sponges  : — 

Fine  soft  Syrian. 

,,       Archipelago. 
Fine  hard,  of  Syria,  known  as  Chimousse. 
Yellow  sponge  of  Syria,  known  as  fine  venise. 

„  of  the  Archipelago,  known  as  common  venise. 

Hen  sponge  of  Barbary. 
Brown  sponge  of  Barbary,  called  Marseilles. 
Salonica  sponge. 
Lastly,  the  Bahamas  and  American  sponges,  which  are  divided  into  fine  and 

common.     Their  tissue  is  loose,  without  elasticity,  and  hence  they  are 

easily  torn.     They  sell  at  a  low  price. 


In   the   ten  years  ending   i860,  the  sale  of   sponge  in 


194       '^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

France  was  2,000,000  kilogrammes,  of  the  value  of 
10,600,000  francs  (^424,000).  The  consumption  is  there- 
fore about  150,000  kilogrammes  per  annum.  There  was 
imported    into    France    in    1875    246,666  kilogrammes   of 

Fig.  9. 


Silicious  sponges.       I.  Eiiplectella  aspcrgillutn  ;  2.  Holtenia  caypcntefia. 

sponge,  of  which  93,324  kilogrammes  were  re-exported. 
In  1876  the  imports  reached  257,878  kilogrammes,  and  the 
exports  were  89,600  kilogrammes. 

Silicious  Sponges, — Sponges  are  not  confined  to  recent 


sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.      195 

seas,  though  the  commercial  ones  are  not  known  to  have 
existed  earher,  because  the  keratose  matter  furnishes 
hardly  favourable  conditions  for  petrifaction.  In  the  oolite 
and  chalk  formations,  sponges  containing  flinty  spicules 
were  very  abundant ;  and  in  most  of  the  earlier  formations, 
large  sponges  containing  calcareous  spicules  abounded. 
These  very  closely  resemble  corals,  and  have  been  mistaken 
for  them  by  some  of  our  best  geologists.  The  spiculae  or 
needle-shaped  particles,  which  are  often  microscopic  in  size, 
are  not  thrown  in  without  order,  but  are  arranged  to  support 
the  skeleton.  The  horny  sponges  do  not  secrete  or  deposit 
spicules,  but  these  are  sometimes  found  within  the  skeleton 
in  broken  and  disordered  form,  which  show  they  were 
taken  in  from  without. 

The  quantity  of  silica  which  constitutes  the  structure  of 
sponges  is  remarkable.  It  generally  occurs  in  the  form  of 
spiculse  in  considerable  quantities,  imbedded  in  the  sub- 
stance or  body  of  the  sponge.  One  of  the  rarest  and  most 
beautiful  of  the  silicious  sponges  is  the  Ettplectella  spccios 
found  at  the  Philippine  Islands.  It  is  of  cornucopia  shape, 
and  has  a  horny,  skeleton-like  network,  composed  of  large 
silicious  fibres  running  from  the  base  to  the  head,  sur- 
rounded by  small  fibres  forming  square,  open  meshes, 
resembling  a  net  or  basket  work.  It  ranges  in  height  from 
6  to  over  15  inches.  At  the  lower  extremity,  or  root,  it 
averages  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  but  its  size  gradually 
increases  as  it  approaches  the  top,  where  often  it  is  two 
inches  wide.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  ridge  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  is  closed  at  the  larger  extremity  by  a 
delicate  open  lacework  of  fibres,  possessing  no  particular 
pattern.  It  is  on  this  light  and  pretty  structure  that  the 
fibrous,  gelatinous  substance  rests,  resembling  in  texture 
the  common  sponge,  but  in  this  instance  disposed  in  an 


196       The  Conimercial  Prodticis  of  the  Sea. 


Fig.  10, 


Euplectella  speciosa. 

irregular,  foliated  pattern,  over  which  the  usual  film  of  the 
sponge  is  laid  during  life.* 

*  Bryce  M.  Wright  in  "The  American  NaturaUst." 


sponge  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean.       197 

At  one  time  this  sponge  was  so  rare  that  specimens 
fetched  enormous  prices ;  now,  by  the  progress  of  com- 
merce, it  has  become  more  common,  and  specimens  of  great 
beauty  may  be  had  for  a  few  shilHngs. 


198       The  ConiDiercial  Prodtids  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER    V. 

OILS    FROM    MARINE    MAMMALS. 

The  seal  fishery — Seal  oil — Yield  of  oil  from  blubber— Seal-skins— The  fur 
seal — The  walrus — The  whale  fishery — Imports  of  train  oil  or  blubber, 
spermaceti,  and  whalebone — Porpoise  oil — Dugong  oil. 

Oils  from  the  Mammals. — One  of  the  articles  contributed 
by  marine  animals  to  the  wants  of  industry  is  oil,  which  is 
largely  obtained  both  from  mammals  and  fishes.  The 
aggregate  value  of  the  trade  in  these  in  the  United  King- 
dom alone  exceeds  i^  1,000,000  sterling  a  year.  Some  of 
these  oleaginous  substances  are  employed  as  food  by  man, 
some  in  manufactures,  and  others  in  medicine. 

Oil  for  commercial  purposes  is  obtained  in  greater  or 
less  quantities  from  numerous  inhabitants  of  the  seas — 
from  the  marine  mammals,  the  right  and  spermaceti 
whale,  the  seal,  sea-elephant,  dugong,  porpoise,  etc. ;  from 
the  shark,  sunfish,  cod,  herring,  and  numerous  small  fish, 
which  are  especially  sought  for  the  oil  they  yield. 

The  great  trade  in  animal  oils  and  fatty  substances 
indicates  the  care  with  which  oily  matters,  rich  in  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  are  sought  in  all  countries,  supplying  as  they 
do  a  great  number  of  wants  in  countries  the  most  civilized,  as 
well  as  among  people  still  in  their  primitive  state.  We 
know  that  fish  oils  are  beneficial  in  consumptive  cases,  as 


Oils  frG77t  Marine  Mammals.  1 99 

with  cod-liver  oil  and  that  obtained  from  the  dugong  ;  but 
they  might  be  often  used  with  advantage  for  inunction, 
where  they  are  not  easily  retained  on  the  stomach. 

Dr.  T.  Thompson  has  pointed  out  the  medicinal  value 
of  various  animal  oils  besides  cod-liver  oil,  such  as  sperm 
and  seal  oil ;  and  the  result  of  his  observations  was  a  con- 
viction that  fish  oils  generally  resembled  one  another  in 
their  remedial  properties,  although  differing  in  their  aptitude 
for  digestive  assimilation  in  the  human  stomach.  He  tried 
neat's-foot  oil,  an  animal  oil  obtained  from  a  soft,  solid  fat 
found  between  the  parchment  and  the  leather  skin  of 
animals  ;  also  shark-liver  oil,  and  an  oil  obtained  from  a 
species  of  fish  abounding  on  the  Malabar  coast ;  and  these 
trials  were  frequently  attended  with  encouraging  results. 

The  practice  of  daily  inunction  is  common  in  many 
warm  countries,  and  serves  to  soften  the  skin  and  keep  the 
body  in  health.  In  tropical  regions,  vegetable  oils  are 
chiefly  used  ;  but  the  New  Zealanders  and  some  others  use 
shark  oil.  The  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders  imbibe  large 
quantities  of  train,  seal,  and  various  fish  oils  ;  whilst  the 
natives  about  the  large  rivers  and  coasts  of  Brazil  use  turtle 
oil,  and  fat  obtained  from  the  alligator  and  crocodile.  The 
natives  of  many  parts  of  India  use  shark  oil  and  that  from 
the  liver  of  the  sword-fish  in  anointing  their  skin. 

Those  who  are  employed  in  the  woollen  trade,  and  in 
soap,  candle,  and  other  factories,  where  oil  and  fats  are 
largely  used,  enjoy  a  comparative  immunity  from  scrofula 
and  phthisis.  Sailors  believe  a  whaling  voyage  to  be  a  cure 
for  consumption  ;  and  probably  the  quantity  of  oil  drunk 
and  taken  into  the  skin  may  have  its  beneficial  efi'ect  upon 
the  system. 

TJie  Seal  Fishoy. — After  the  cod  fishery,  the  seal 
fishery  is  the    most    profitable    branch    of  trade   in  New- 


200       The  Commci'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

foundland.  More  than  350  vessels  are  engaged  in  it.  The 
seals  whelp  their  young  in  January  and  February  on  the 
ice  field  of  Labrador  ;  this  ice  is  floated  southwards  by 
the  ocean  currents,  and  is  always  to  be  found  on  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland  after  the  middle  of  March.  The  take  of 
seals  varies  ;  in  some  years  the  export  of  skins  being  under 
200,000,  in  others  exceeding  450,000.  The  value  of  the 
seal  oil  shipped  ranges  from  ;^  160,000  to  ;^20o,ooo.  The 
yield  of  oil  is  about  1 1  gallons  from  one  cwt.  of  blubber. 

Fig.  II. 


Phoca  Groenlandka, 

Seal  oil  and  cod  oil  are  now  two  of  the  most  important, 
whale  oil  having  much  declined  in  quantity,  owing  to  the 
fishery  being  less  earnestly  prosecuted  ;  but  there  are  very 
many  fish  oils,  extracted  in  different  quarters,  which  have 
a  local  and  general  use,  such  as  shark  oil,  herring  oil,  men- 
haden oil,  etc. 

Seal  Oil. — There  are  three  classifications  of  seal  oil : 
that  which  drains  spontaneously  by  the  pressure  of  the 
layers  of  the  skins  one  over  the  other  ;  that  which  is  pre- 
pared by  submitting  the  fat  to  the  action  of  steam  in 
hermetically  closed  boilers  ;  and  that  which  is  obtained  from 
the  residual  mass,  submitted  to  a  high  pressure. 


Oils  fi'om  Marine  Mammals.  201 

At  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  the  head-quarters  of  the 
seaUng  trade,  the  bkibber  used  to  be  generally  put  into 
wooden  cribs,  beneath  which  were  wooden  pans  to  catch  the 
oil.  No  artificial  heat  was  used  in  this  process.  The  oil 
which  runs  for  the  first  two  or  three  months  is  termed  pale 
seal  oil,  and  forms  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  whole  quantity. 
As  putrefaction  takes  place,  the  oil  becomes  darker  and 
more  offensive.  The  putrescent  refuse  and  the  clippings  of 
the  pelts,  or  skins,  yield  further  quantities  of  oil  by  boiling 
(boiled  seal  oil).  This  process  is  now  very  generally  re- 
placed by  steam  apparatus.  A  uniform  and  much  better 
quality  of  oil  is  thus  obtained,  free  from  the  horrible  odour 
of  that  prepared  by  the  old  method,  and  the  time  required 
for  rendering  out  the  oil  is  only  twelve  hours,  instead  of  six 
months.  A  few  drops  of  nitric  ether  is  said  to  destroy  the 
disagreeable  smell  of  rancid  oil,  and  to  prevent  oil  be- 
coming rancid.  When  the  oil  is  heated  to  separate  the 
alcohol,  it  becomes  clear  and  bright,  even  when  it  was 
before  turbid. 

In  Russia  a  quantity  of  seal  oil  is  obtained  annually  in 
the  White  and  Caspian  Seas.  The  mode  of  preparation  is 
very  simple.  After  removing  the  layer  of  blubber  which 
adheres  to  the  skin,  it  is  exposed  in  casks  or  vats  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  which  dissolves  out  the  oil  of  first  quality.  The 
residue  is  heated  in  cauldrons  with  a  little  water.  In  one 
or  two  factories  the  preparation  of  the  oil  on  a  large  scale 
is  carried  on  by  steam.  The  seals  killed  in  autumn  and 
winter  have  the  oil  rendered  out  forthwith,  without  the 
necessity  of  first  salting  the  skins ;  but  in  the  hot  seasons 
this  step  is  necessary,  and  a  great  pit  is  prepared,  capable 
of  holding  50,000  skins. 

Repeated  and  careful  experiments  in  rendering  out  seal 
blubber  show  the  relative  produce  of  pure  oil  obtained  from 


202       The  Co7nmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


the  different  species   to  be  as  follows  for  one  barrel  of 
blubber,  from  seals  in  prime  condition  : — 


Barrels  of  fat. 


Oil. 


Residue. 


Old  harp  (P/ioca  Gi-oenlandicci) 
Young  harp 

Young  hood  [SteDimatoptis  crisiatiis) 
Beadlemer  (a  year-old  hood) 


lbs. 
288 
225 
230 
246 


Galls. 
224 
22 
21 
2li 


lbs. 

73 

52 

80 

103 


In  1850  the  export  of  seal  oil  from  Newfoundland  was 
6200  tuns,  valued  at  ;^i 80,000;  in  i860  it  was  5565  tuns, 
valued  at  £\^S7^  5  i'^  1870  it  was  4982  tuns,  valued  at 
^176,472  ;  and  in  1875,  4837  tun.s,  valued  at  £i})2,\  16. 

The  total  value  of  the  oil  shipped  from  Newfoundland 
has  been  as  below  : — 


Cod  oil 


1870. 

iS7S- 

;^I07,8l3     ... 

...    ^^101,420 

21,068    ... 

3,842 

176,472   ... 

132,116 

, ,      refined 
Seal  oil      ... 

;^305>353  ;^237,378 

Thirty  small  sloops  and  steam  vessels  were  employed 
on  the  bank  and  Spitzbergen  fisheries  in  1873  ;  the  catch 
resulted  in  130,000  seals,  350  sea-horses  or  walruses,  and 
62^61  barrels  of  liver,  estimated  together  at  a  value  of 
^^99,669. 

Seal-skuis. — The  seal  fishery  is  chiefly  prosecuted  from 
Newfoundland.  It  commences  in  March,  and  rarely  lasts 
longer  than  one  or  two  months.  There  are  from  150  to 
200  decked  vessels  employed  in  it.  These  will  take  pro- 
bably 2000  each,  but  as  many  as  8000  have  been  taken 
on  a  single  trip,  and  often  two  or  three  voyages  are  made  in 
one  season. 

The  quantity  of  seal-skins  received  in  this  country 
varies;    it  has  been    as   low  as  160,000,  and  as   high  as 


Oils  f7'om  Marine  Mammals. 


203 


876,000.  In  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  total  number 
received  has  been  nearly  23,000,000,  thus  summarized  in 
periods  of  nine  years  ending — 


184S 
1857 
1866 

1875 


4,884,775 
6,429,820 

4,763,132 
6,744,447 

22,822,174 


Fig.  12. 


Phoca  oceanica. 

The  fur  seal-skin  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  different 
animals  to  those  of  the  hair  seals.  One  association,  the 
Alaska  Company,  contributes  100,000  of  these  skins  a  year 
having  a  monopoly  by  a  contract  with  the  American 
Government. 


204        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Having  fully  described  and  figured  the  marine  mam- 
malia of  any  commercial  value  in  another  work,*  I  would 
refer  those  desirous  of  further  details  to  it. 

The  walrus  {Trichecus  rosmariis)  furnishes  some  eco- 
nomic products,  in  its  flesh,  its  skin,  its  teeth,  and  the  oil 
obtained  from  the  blubber.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Arctic  regions  esteem  its  flesh.  The  hide,  when  cut  into 
shreds  and  plaited  into  cordage,  forms  hnes  used  in  cap- 

FiG.  13. 


Walrus. 

turing  the  whale.  It  has  also  been  successfully  used 
for  belting  and  for  covering  skin-boats.  The  quantity  of 
walrus  tusks  obtained  in  Alaska  averages  100,000  lbs,  in 
weight.  The  teeth,  which  weigh  about  four  pounds  the 
pair,  used  to  be  in  great  demand  by  dentists.  Among  the 
Chinese  this  dentine  is  employed  for  those  various  uses  to 
which  they  turn  ivory  so  skilfully.  Walrus  oil  is  a  well- 
known  article  of  commerce. 

The  Whale  /^w/zr/j.— Narratives  and  accounts  have  so 
frequently   and    graphically   been   written,    that    it  is    not 

*  "Animal  Products:  their  Preparation,  Commercial  Uses,  and  Value." 
Chapman  and  Hall,  1877. 


Oils  from  Marine  Mammals. 


205 


necessary  to  enter  into  any  lengthened  detail  here  of  the 
prosecution  of  this  fishery,  which  has  largely  declined, 
having  been  much  abandoned,  as  compared  with  former 
years,  both  by  the  English  and  Americans.  The  French 
have  given  it  up  altogether. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  730  ships,  registering 
233,189  tons,  were  employed  in  the  American  whale  fishery  ; 
now  there  are  less  than  170  vessels,  registering  40,000  tons, 
employed  in  whaling. 

The  extensive  use  of  gas,  as  well  as  the  employment 
of  mineral  and  vegetable  oils,  for  illuminating  purposes, 
has  in  a  great  degree  superseded  the  demand  for  whale  oil 
that  existed  half  a  century  ago.  Our  annual  average  im- 
ports of  train  oil,  it  will  be  seen,  keep  pretty  steady. 


Imports  into  the  United  Kingdom. 


Train  oil 

or  blubber. 

Spermaceti 

or  head  matter. 

Tuns. 

Value. 

Tuns. 

Value. 

1867 

11,901 

^^478,723 

3226 

;^373,367 

I  SOS 

11,203 

415,400 

1945 

185,960 

1869 

10,146 

399,53^ 

4107 

387,171 

IS70 

14,721 

549.213 

4069 

341,340 

IS7I 

19,291 

630,706 

5388 

451,028 

1872 

15,004 

522,056 

37IS 

333,534 

1873 

15,069 

514,493 

2817 

252,434 

1874 

13,896 

454,729 

3155 

296,630 

1875 

14,890 

489,817 

44O9 

427,884 

1870 

13,4(36 

445,262 

321S 

230,359 

The  blubber  on  a  fat  whale  is  sometimes,  in  its  thickest 
parts,  from  15  to  20  inches  thick,  though  usually  not  more 
than  a  foot  ;  it  is  of  a  coarse  texture,  and  much  harder 
than  pork.  So  very  full  of  oil  is  it,  that  a  cask  closely 
packed  with  the  clean  raw  faf  of  the  whale  will  not  contain 
the  oil  boiled  from  it  and  the  scraps  that  are  left  besides. 


2o6       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Whalebone,   as    it    is    erroneously   termed,   is   another 
valuable  product  of  this  fishery. 

Fig.  14 


I.   Greenland  or  right  whale  ;    2.   Spermaceti  whale. 

The  whale-fins  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in 
the  last  ten  years  have  been  as  follows  : — 


Cvvts. 

Value. 

if67 

...   2740   ... 

...  ;^5I,28b 

1868 

...   3800   ... 

(37,870 

1869 

...   1680   ... 

34,958 

1870 

...   4260 

...    79,482 

1871 

2853   ... 

...    45,178 

1872 

2831   ... 

...    51.558 

1873 

3544   ■• 

...    64,618 

1874 

...  2911  ... 

54,920 

1875 

...  1871  ... 

42, 240 

1876 

1799  ••• 

...    47,144 

A  flourishing  establishment  has  grown  up  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  small  town  of  Vadso,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Waranger  Fiord,  Norway,  under  the  auspices  of  a  Mr.  Foyn, 


Oils  from  Ma7'ine  Mammals.  207 

of  T6nsberg,  the  patentee  of  an  improved  kind  of  harpoon 
employed  in  the  whale  fishery.  It  consists  of  a  harpoon 
with  two  movable  barbs  like  the  claws  of  an  anchor,  one  on 
each  side.  The  harpoon  is  projected  from  a  swivel  gun 
fixed  on  the  bows  of  the  vessel.  The  claws  or  barbs  lie  flat 
against  the  stem  while  in  the  gun,  and  during  its  pro- 
gress through  the  air  and  entrance  into  the  body  of  the 
fish  ;  but  no  sooner  is  the  line  attached  to  the  harpoon 
hauled  upon,  or  the  fish  takes  a  start,  than  the  claws  or 
barbs  expand  and  become  fixed  at  an  angle  of  45°  on  each 
side,  which  eftectually  precludes  the  possibility  of  the  har- 
poon being  withdrawn  from  the  body  of  the  fish.  In 
addition  to  this,  a  capsule  containing  an  explosive  sub- 
stance is  concealed  in  the  harpoon,  which  by  another 
ingenious  contrivance  explodes,  causing  instant  death. 
The  animal  is  then  towed  by  the  steamer  to  the  factory, 
where  the  usual  flenching  process  commences  ;  and  as 
soon  as  completed,  the  residue  of  the  huge  animal  is  con- 
verted into  artificial  manure  (guano),  by  which  the  whole 
carcase  becomes  utilized.  Mr.  Foyn  employs  two  small 
steamers,  and  in  1873  caught  38  whales.  From  the 
effective  means  employed,  it  appears  that  he  never  loses 
a  whale  after  the  harpoon  has  once  entered  the  carcase, 
the  struggle  seldom  lasting  above  a  few  minutes  after 
the  fish  is  struck  before  death  ensues  The  factory  is 
situated  at  the  entrance  to  the  Waranger  Fiord,  where  the 
process  of  utilization  commences.  This  species  differs  from 
the  Greenland  whale  {Balcciioptcra),  and  when  full  grown 
exceeds  it  in  size,  as  they  have  been  caught  100  feet  in 
length,  and  the  young  when  cast  have  been  known  to 
reach  20  feet.  In  1874  Mr.  Foyn  is  reported  to  have 
caught  50  whales,  which  were  estimated  to  be  worth  from 
;^I50  sterling  each. 


2o8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Porpoise    Oil. — A    fishery  for    the   porpoise    {Delphirnis 
p/ioccuna)  is  carried  on  off  the  coasts  of  Trebizond  ;  it   is 

Fig.  15. 


Black  porpoise  {P/ioaeiia  vulgaris). 

taken  in  nets,  and  also  shot.  This  fishery  yields  upwards 
of  700,000  lbs.  of  oil  per  annum,  a  portion  of  which  is  con- 
sumed by  the  lower  classes  for  lighting,  and  the  rest  finds  a 
market  in  Constantinople.  Porpoises  are  also  caught  in 
large  numbers  in  the  Little  Belt,  Denmark,  where  1500  to 
2000  are  frequently  obtained. 

The  extraction  of  the  oil  of  the  white  whale  {Beluga 


Grampus  {Phoc(Tna  orcd). 

catodoii)  and  of  the  black  porpoise  constitutes  an  important 
industry  in  the  district  of  Quebec,  on   the   St.  Lawrence 


Oils  from  Marine  Mammals.  209 

river.  This  oil  is  inodorous,  and  gives  a  brilliant  light.  It 
is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  other  for  lighthouses,  because 
it  does  not  coagulate  even  in  the  most  intense  cold,  and 
its  durability  renders  it  invaluable  for  greasing  leather  and 
oiling  machinery,  which  it  preserves  from  injury  by  friction. 

In  1874  fish  oil  to  the  value  of  ^86,600  was  exported 
from  Canada. 

Diigong  Oil. — An  animal  oil,  having  medicinal  pro- 
perties, was  a  few  years  ago  added  to  the  list  of  commercial 
products.  It  is  obtained  from  the  blubber  of  the  dugong  of 
Australia  {Halicore  Australis),  a  native  of  the  shores  of 
Queensland  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia.  It  was 
recommended  as  a  new  therapeutic  agent,  and  as  a  substi- 
tute for  cod-liver  oil.  The  distinction  between  them  is 
that  the  dugong  oil  contains  no  iodine  ;  it  is  said,  however, 
to  possess  all  the  advantages  of  the  cod-liver  oil  without  its 
unpleasant  smell.  No  large  supply  of  this  oil  could,  how- 
ever, be  obtained,  and  from  having  arrived  frequently  much 
adulterated  it  lost  any  reputation  it  may  have  merited. 

The  best  known  of  this  family  is  the  Manatus  Auicri- 
caniis,  Cuv.,  which  frequents  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and 
quiet,  secluded  bays  and  inlets,  in  the  islands  of  the  West 
Indies  and  the  coasts  of  Guinea  and  Brazil.  It  is  said  to 
attain  nearly  20  feet  in  length,  and  differs  from  the  dugong 
in  having  no  canines  or  incisors.  An  old  author.  Dr.  R. 
Brookes,  in  his  "Natural  History,"  speaking  of  it  says, 
"  The  fat  which  lies  between  the  cuticle  and  the  skin,  when 
exposed  to  the  sun,  has  a  fine  smell  and  taste,  and  far 
exceeds  the  fat  of  any  sea  animal.  It  has  this  peculiar 
property,  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  will  not  spoil  it,  nor 
make  it  grow  rancid.  The  taste  is  like  the  oil  of  sweet 
almonds,  and  it  will  serve  very  well  in  all  cases  instead  of 
butter.     Any  quantity  may  be  taken  inwardly  with  safety, 

10 


2IO       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

for  it  has  no  other  effect  than  keeping  the  body  open.  The 
fat  of  the  tail  is  of  a  harder  consistence,  and  when  boiled  is 
more  delicate  than  the  other."  The  flesh  of  the  manatus 
is  highly  esteemed  as  food  in  all  countries  the  shores  of 
which   it    frequents.      It    is    particularly  abundant   in   the 

Fig.   17. 


I.   Halicore  Austrahs  ;  2.   ATanatiis  Amcricaims. 

lakes  of  the  Amazon.  Wallace,  in  his  Travels  up  that 
river,  describes  it.  "  Beneath  the  skin,"  he  says,  "  is  a  layer 
of  fat  of  a  greater  or  less  thickness,  generally  about  an  inch, 
which  is  boiled  down  to  make  an  oil  used  for  lighting  and 
cooking.     Each  animal  yields  from  5  to  25  gallons  of  oil." 


Oils  from  Marine  Marmnals.  2 1 1 

Edwards,  in  his  "Voyage  up  the  River  Amazon,"  speaks 
of  them,  and  says,  not  unfrequently  they  are  taken  eight 
feet  in  length.  This  is  said  to  be  a  distinct  species  from 
the  Manatus  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


212       The  Cormnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FISH  OILS  AND  THE  FISHERIES  CONNECTED  THEREWITH. 

Definition  of  fish  oil — Cod  oil — Cod-liver  oil — Exports  from  Newfoundland — 
Mode  of  preparation — Exports  from  Norway — From  Iceland — Fish  oils 
in  Russia — Indian  fish  oils — Fishes  from  which  obtained — Tunny  oil — 
Herring  oil — Oolachan  oil — Menhaden  oil— Mode  of  preparation  and 
statistics. 

The  term  fish  oil  is  a  very  vague  one,  from  its  being 
generally  applied  to  oil  of  all  kinds,  obtained  both  from 
marine  mammals  and  fishes.  Train  oil  from  the  whale  is 
frequently  so  termed.  Shark  oil,  and  the  oil  expressed  or 
obtained  by  heat  from  various  kinds  of  fish,  large  and 
small,  is  very  much  mixed  as  sent  into  commerce,  and  it 
is  scarcely  possible,  unless  from  a  few  special  districts  and 
large  factories,  to  know  what  is  the  true  source  of  the  fish 
oil  purchased.  There  are  some  few  large  fisheries,  such  as 
the  cod,  herring,  pilchard,  sardine,  menhaden,  etc.,  where 
attention  is  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  oil. 

Cod  Oil. — The  oil  obtained  from  the  cod  forms  a  con- 
siderable item  in  the  fishing  business.  About  one  hogs- 
head of  oil  is  produced  from  every  five  tons  of  fish.  The 
quantity  of  oil  extracted  from  cod  livers  in  Newfoundland 
is  about  1,250,000  gallons,  valued  at  ;i^200,ooo.     Nearly  all 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  coitnected  therewith.   2 1 3 

is  sent  to  England,  as  the  American  import  duty  is  so  liiglv 
The  value  of  the  crude  cod  oil  shipped  from  Newfound- 
land amounts  to  about  iJ":  10,000,  and  of  the  refined  cod  oil 
from  ;^ 1 0,000  to  ;^ 1 5,000.  The  export  of  cod  oil  from  the 
French  Newfoundland  fisheries  in  the  five  years  ending 
1871  averaged  560,000  kilogrammes.  In  1876,  2,819,000 
kilogrammes  of  fish  oil  were  imported  into  Havre. 

The  medicinal  qualities  of  cod-liver  oil  have  long  been 
fully  proved,  and  its  manufacture  has  been  a  great 
source  of  wealth  to  the  fishing  colony  of  Newfoundland. 
Like  all  good  things,  however,  it  is  easily  imitated.  The 
common  cod  oil,  made  by  the  putrifying  process,  has  often 
been  refined  by  animal  charcoal,  filtered  so  as  to  deprive  it 
of  all  bad  smell  (the  iodine  and  all  other  medicinal  qualities 
having  passed  away  by  putrefaction  in  the  manufacture), 
and  it  is  then  palmed  off  by  dishonest  dealers  as  the 
genuine  article. 

The  cod  livers  reserved  for  the  preparation  of  medicinal 
oil  are  all  very  carefully  examined,  and  those  that  are  poor, 
have  sustained  injury,  or  have  portions  of  gall  adhering,  are 
removed.  The  selected  livers  are  then  thoroughly  washed 
and  afterwards  dried.  The  fishermen — many  of  whom  make 
the  oil  themselves,  or  sell  to  larger  makers — put  these  pre- 
pared livers  immediately  into  open  barrels,  where  the  oil 
slowly  exudes,  and,  rising  to  the  top,  is  removed  with  large 
spoons.  It  is,  when  quite  cold,  filtered  three  or  four  times 
through  bibulous  paper,  and  the  preparation  is  complete. 
Nothing  more  remains  but  to  pour  it  into  tin  cans  or  oak 
barrels,  and  it  is  ready  for  market.  The  oil  is  of  a  straw 
yellow,  with  scarcely  any  smell  or  taste,  and  is  known  as 
natural  medicinal  oil. 

In  the  mean  time  other  fishermen,  having  carefully 
sorted,  washed,  and  dried  the  livers,  place  them  in  a  pot 


214       ^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

of  tinned  sheet  iron.  This  tinned  pot  is  then  put  into  a 
larger  iron  pot,  half  full  of  water,  which  on  becoming 
heated  causes  the  livers  immediately  to  begin  to  give  out 
their  oil.  Some  makers  introduce  steam  from  a  boiler 
between  the  two  pots,  and  others  let  the  steam  out  directly 
on  the  livers.  The  first  yield  by  these  methods  of  regu- 
lated heat  is  removed  by  spoons,  filtered  when  cold,  and 
reserved  for  medicinal  use  under  the  names  of  "  steam- 
boiled  medicinal  "  and  "  ordinary  bright."  The  after  yield 
is  used  in  medicine,  though  somewhat  redder;  it  is  called 
"  bright  brown."  Finally,  those  portions  of  liver  that 
will  not  dissolve  by  themselves  or  by  a  mild  heat  are 
roughly  boiled  down  to  yield  "  dark  brown,"  or  tanner's 
oil,  the  black  residuum  being  used  with  other  fish  refuse  for 
manure. 

There  is  a  great  difi"erence  between  one  year  and 
another  in  the  quantity  of  oil  the  cod's  liver  yields.  One 
year  it  may  require  600  livers  to  make  a  barrel  of  oil ;  in 
others,  200  are  sufficient. 

In  1840  42,737  barrels  of  cod  and  shark  oil  were  sent 
away  from  Norway.  In  1848  1,296,572  gallons  of  cod  oil 
were  shipped,  against  only  65,600  in  1846. 

From  the  coast  of  Norway  the  average  export  of  fish 
oil  from  185 1  to  1855  was  52,900  tuns,  and  from  1856  to 
i860,  59,617  tuns  per  annum  ;  from  1861  to  1866,  7,750,000 
litres  per  annum.  In  1877  130,600  barrels  of  cod-liver 
oil  were  shipped,  valued  at  ;^386,6oo.  The  catch  of  each 
boat  yields  from  8  to  20  barrels  of  liver.  PVesh  livers, 
for  medicinal  oil,  fetch  from  27^.  to  31^.  per  barrel;  old 
livers,  from  22s.  to  26^.  At  the  early  part  of  the  season 
the  fish  are  rich  in  liver,  so  that  from  250  to  300  of  the 
net-caught  fish  yield  a  barrel  of  liver,  while  50  to  lOO  more 
fish  taken    on  lines  would  be  required.      As  the  seaso 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  confiected  therewith.  2 1 5 

advances  the  fish  become  perceptibly  poorer,  and  it  will 
take  400  to  450  to  fill  a  barrel,  while  on  the  sea-board 
or  western  side  of  the  Lofoden  Islands  from  600  to  700 
livers  are  requisite. 

In  Sweden  the  residue  from  fish  which  have  been  salted 
are  placed  in  large  boilers,  with  waste  herrings  and  others, 
a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  boiled  or  frequently 
steamed  till  the  mass  is  dissolved;  cold  water  is  then  intro- 
duced, and  the  oil  floats  at  the  top.  This  is  skimmed  off, 
clarified,  and  put  into  casks.  It  is  of  a  brown  colour,  good 
for  burning  and  other  uses,  but  is  said  to  be  too  fluid  for 
the  leather  workers. 

The  export  of  fish  oils  from  Iceland  (principally  from 
the  shark)  amounted  in  1867  to  4,186,560  lbs.  An 
ordinary  year's  export,  however,  may  be  put  down  at 
about  2,700,000  lbs. 

One  of  the  most  important  secondary  products  of  the 
fisheries  in  Russia  is  the  oil  obtained,  of  which  the 
quantity  annually  extracted  represents  a  value  exceeding 
i^7 1,500.  This  is  either  employed  for  medicinal  use,  for 
food,  or  for  technical  purposes.  The  medicinal  oil  is 
obtained  from  the  liver  of  the  cod,  which  is  cut  up  when 
it  is  quite  fresh,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  steam  heat. 
The  oil  used  for  food  is  obtained  from  the  fat  surrounding 
the  intestines  of  the  sturgeon  and  the  sandre  {Leiicoperca 
sandrc).  It  is  washed,  and  in  its  fresh  state  melted  in 
steam  boilers.  The  oil  or  fat  is  chiefly  used  to  add  to  the 
barrels  of  caviare,  when  the  fish  spawn  is  itself  not  suffi- 
ciently fat.  At  the  seat  of  production  fish  oil  is  also 
largely  used  instead  of  vegetable  oils. 

The  common  fish  oil  employed  for 'technical  uses  in 
soap  factories,  tanneries,  for  lighting  workshops,  etc.,  is 
generally  obtained  by  putrefaction,  which  decomposes  the 


2 1 6        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

membranes  by  which  the  fish  fat  is  surrounded,  and  facili- 
tates its  flow.  The  quantity  of  this  oil  made  amounts 
to  more  than  100,000  pouds  of  36  lbs.  The  oil  used  to 
be  extracted  not  only  from  different  parts  of  fish,  but 
large  quantities  of  small  fish  were  also  rendered  down  for 
their  oil,  especially  the  herrings  of  Astrakhan  and  many 
small  species  of  Cyprinoides.  The  Government  have  of 
late  years,  however,  put  a  stop  to  this  practice  of  using 
small  fry  for  the  purpose,  although  the  extraction  of 
herring  oil  is  permitted,  because  such  enormous  shoals  of 
these  can  be  obtained  that  it  is  impossible  to  salt  them 
rapidly  enough  when  they  are  fresh,  hence  the  policy  of 
turning  them  into  oil. 

Not  only  are  the  livers  of  the  codfish  now  used  to 
extract  oil  from,  but  those  of  a  number  of  other  fish  are 
sought  for  the  purpose.  Thus,  the  livers  of  the  ray,  the 
shark,  and  other  Sqiialus  are  used  in  Iceland  and  Norway 
to  extract  an  oil  used  for  lighting  and  employed  by 
curriers.  In  British  Guiana  an  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
liver  of  the  saw-fish  {Pristis  pectinatus),  which  is  used  for 
lighting,  and  by  the  immigrants  from  India  for  anointing 
their  bodies.  A  liver  will  yield  from  15  to  20  gallons  of  oil. 
In  Cambodia  a  fish  called  tussoc  yields  an  oil  remarkable 
for  the  proportion  of  stearine  it  contains. 

The  quantity  of  fish  oil  obtained  in  India  has  much 
declined  of  late  years.  From  Bombay,  Sind,  and  Madras, 
in  1 865,  more  than  3,750,000  lbs.  were  shipped.  In  Madras 
a  good  deal  is  still  made.  The  Indian  fish  oils  are  mainly 
of  two  descriptions — medicinal  and  common. 

The  natives  prepare  fish  oils  from  the  livers  of  sharks, 
skates,  saw-fishes,  rays,  cat-fishes,  oil  sardines,  and  other 
kinds.  The  cat-fish  livers  have  the  most  oil  about  Janu- 
ary, just  before  they  are  breeding.     When   the  livers  of 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  connected  therewith.   2  r  7 

these  fish  alone  are  employed,  they  are  heated  up  to 
130°  in  water,  having  about  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
depth  over  them.  After  15  or  20  minutes,  on  being 
stirred,  the  froth  rises,  and  the  oil  is  skimmed  off  into  large 
vessels,  in  which  state  it  is  sold  as  fish  oil.  There  is  no 
washing  of  the  livers — fresh  or  semi-putrid,  bloody  or 
clean,  they  all  are  put  in  the  pot,  and  the  oil  undergoes  no 
straining. 

A  large  quantity  of  oil  is  also  procured  in  India  from 
sardines,  and  especially  from  the  "  louar  "  {Cliipea 
N'eo/wivii),  which  is  obtained  from  August  to  November, 
and  then  treated  with  boiling  water  to  separate  the  oil 
which  floats.  Oil  is  also  obtained  from  the  livers  of  seve- 
ral Siliiroids,  but  it  is  only  during  January  and  February 
that  the  organs  are  rich  enough  in  fatty  matter  to  be 
remunerative.  The  oil  sardine  seems  to  form  the  basis  of 
all  the  oil  obtained  in  India,  for  if  not  prepared  from  it,  a 
great  amount  is  from  the  sharks  and  other  fish  who  live 
upon  them.  But  the  oil  sardine  is  very  capricious  as  to  its 
arrival  and  departure.  In  1864  the  enormous  quantity  of 
148,206  cwts.  of  fish  oil  was  shipped  from  the  port  of  Cochin. 
In  1865  still  larger  exports  were  made.  During  the  next  five 
years  scarcely  anything  was  done  in  the  trade;  but  in  1871 
the  shoals  of  fish  reappeared  as  abundantly  as  ever,  and 
with  these  shoals  the  sharks  returned.  When  the  sardine 
fish  first  arrive  they  are  lean,  but  by  October,  and  some- 
times before,  they  become  fat,  and  are  well  adapted  for  ex- 
tracting oil  from.  They  are  captured  either  by  long  float- 
nets,  attached  at  either  end  to  a  boat,  and  by  making  a 
circuit  the  shoal  is  surrounded;  or  else  several  canoes  put  off 
together,  and  pull  to  a  shoal  of  these  fish,  which  they  take 
by  cast-nets.  A  boat-load  of  sardines  is  computed  to  hold 
14,000. 


2 1 8       The  Commeixial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

If  Cliipea  lemuru,  Bleeker,  is  the  oil  sardine,  this  fish 
would  appear  to  be  found  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

At  Rangoon  the  average  quantity  of  fish  oil  obtainable 
is  over  77  tons  per  month  ;  but  from  November  to  May 
much  larger  quantities  are  procurable,  it  being  only  made 
at  those  times.  It  is  used  for  lamps,  and  even  for  curries 
and  frying  fish ;  and  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  intestines  of 
some  fish,  the  heads  of  others,  and  even  whole  fish,  in  an 
iron  vessel  with  water  in  it,  and  the  fatty  substance  as 
it  floats  is  skimmed  off  into  another  pan,  and  boiled  till 
the  oil  floats.  It  is  said  to  be  chiefly  extracted  from  the 
Anabas  scandcns,  Barbus  chola,  Chipea  palasah,  and  the 
intestines  of  the  Ophiocephahis  striatiis. 

Tunny  oil  is  extracted  at  Tunis  from  the  head,  back- 
bones, and  refuse  of  the  fish,  which  are  placed  in  a  large 
cauldron  capable  of  holding  800  heads  and  400  skeletons, 
and  allowed  to  boil  for  24  hours.  The  value  of  the  tunny 
oil  exported  from  Tunis  in  1871  was  ^1600. 

Herring  Oil. — For  1 5  years  or  more,  herrings  have  been 
chiefly  converted  into  oil  in  Russia,  as  there  exists  a  preju- 
dice against  eating  them,  under  the  belief  that  they  are 
rabid,  from  the  habit  they  have  of  turning  round  and 
round  when  they  are  spawning.  About  100,000,000  of  these 
fish  are  sacrificed  annually  for  oil  making.  During  the 
three  or  four  weeks  that  the  influx  of  fish  continues, 
100,000  to  250,000  pouds  (of  36  lbs.)  of  herring  oil  are 
made  on  the  Volga,  according  as  the  fishery  is  abundant 
and  the  fish  more  or  less  fat.  The  manufacture  is  carried 
on  in  this  manner.  The  herrings  are  placed  in  open  casks, 
containing  about  lOOO,  and  boiling  water  poured  over  the 
mass.  Several  days  elapse  before  the  fish  enter  into  putrid 
fermentation,  under  the  action  of  the  air,  the  heat,  and 
the  hot  water,  and  the  oil  separates.    The  whole  is  trans- 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fishei'ies  connected  therewith,   219 

formed  into  a  half-liquid,  reddish  paste,  of  a  disgusting 
odour.  But  when  once  this  putrid'  fermentation  has  com- 
menced a  day  suffices.  The  oil  is  then  collected  from  the 
surface,  and  the  mass  thrown  away. 

In  Japan  oil  is  extracted  from  the  herrings  which  are 
caught  on  the  coast  of  Yesso  and  the  north  of  Nipon.  The 
fisheries  afford  employment  to  thousands  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  are  a  source  of  immense  profit  to  the  Japanese,  who 
farm  them  from  the  various  daiuiios  who  are  charged  by 
the  Japanese  Government  to  protect  this  island.  The  prices 
vary  from  48^-.  to  56^-.  the  picul  (130  lbs.)  In  Kanagawa 
this  fish  oil  is  only  about  half  that  price.  The  principal 
market  for  fish  oil  is  Hakodate. 

The  oolaclian  or  houlican  ( ThalcicJithys  pacificiis) — a  fish 
somewhat  larger  than  the  sprat,  very  delicate,  and  of 
exquisite  flavour — is  found  in  abundance  in  the  waters 
of  British  Columbia.  It  has  been  suggested  that  these  fish 
might  be  cured  in  their  own  oil,  or  marinated  after  the 
manner  of  pilchards.  They  are  so  full  of  oil  that  it  is 
said  those  caught  in  the  north  will  burn  like  a  candle. 
They  enter  the  river  in  millions  in  the  month  of  April, 
and  their  presence  is  at  once  made  known  by  the  seagulls, 
which  wheel  about  the  shoals,  and  dart  among  them  for 
their  prey,  startling  the  usually  still  Fraser  with  their  shrill 
cries.  Their  run  lasts  about  three  weeks,  during  which  time 
they  may  be  caught  in  countless  myriads. 

Eaten  fresh,  they  are  most  delicious,  and  are  also 
excellent  packed  in  salt  or  in  a  smoked  form.  The  fish 
are  caught  with  a  po'e  about  10  feet  in  length,  along  which 
are  arranged  for  five  ^eet  at  the  end  nails  like  the  teeth  of 
a  comb,  only  about  an  inch  and  a  half  apart.  The  comb 
is  thrust  smartly  into  the  water,  brought  up  with  a  back- 
ward sweep  of  the  hand,  and  is  rarely  found  without  three 


2  20       The  Coimnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

or  four  fish  impaled  on  the  nails.  Frequently  a  canoe  is 
filled  with  them  in  less  than  two  hours  by  a  couple  of  hands. 

By  warming  over  a  slow  fire,  or  by  heating  in  water,  an 
oil  is  abundantly  obtained,  which  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  cod-liver  oil,  and  with  as  much,  if  not  greater, 
benefit.  The  oil  when  cold  is  of  the  consistence  of  thick 
cream,  white  in  colour,  with  but  little  odour,  and  by  no 
means  unpleasant  to  the  taste — in  fact,  those  who  use  it 
very  quickly  acquire  a  partiality  for  it.  The  Indians  make 
large  quantities  every  season,  and  with  them  it  supplies  the 
place  of  butter.  They  cannot  live  without  it,  and  it  forms 
a  great  article  of  trade.  When  properly  filtered,  a  fine 
pellucid  oil,  of  a  delicate,  pale  yellow  colour,  is  obtained. 
Some  of  the  northern  natives  allow  the  fish  to  become 
half  putrid,  and  then  express  the  oil  by  pressure  upon 
boards. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  oil  might  become  of 
great  economic  value.  It  has  been  given  medicinally,  and 
will  probably  be  found  useful  where  cod-liver  oil  or  other 
hydro-carbonaceous  food  is  indicated. 

MenJiaden  Oil. — A  fishery  eagerly  prosecuted  for  the  oil 
obtained  from  the  fish  is  the  menhaden,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  American  States.  Of  the  natural  history  of 
the  fish  not  much  is  accurately  known,  but  it  is  stated  to  be 
the  Brevoordia  menJiaden  (the  Alosa  menhaden,  Mitchell), 
and  belongs  to  the  herring  family,  differing  from  it  in 
having  a  deep  notch  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
fish  is  from  8  to  14  inches  in  length.  It  frequents  the 
Atlantic  scacoast,  from  Maine  southward,  but  has  not 
been  noticed  south  of  Cape  Hatteras.  It  is  sometimes  sold 
in  the  markets  as  a  table  fish,  but  is  usually  considered 
too  oily  for  food.  Among  the  fishermen,  however,  it  is 
esteemed  a  fine-flavoured  fish.     This  is  the  source  of  the 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  co7tnectcd  therewith.   221 

American  j'f J-//  oil.  Whale  oil  formerly  sometimes  bore  the 
name,  but  has  long  ceased  to  do  so  ;  and  oils  obtained 
from  other  fish  have  their  own  specific  designation. 

The  manufacture  of  oil  from  porgies  or  menhaden  is 
an  important  industry  in  some  of  the  American  Atlantic 
States.  The  value  of  this  fishery  to  the  State  of  Maine  is 
estimated  at  ^^300,000.  Forty  steamers,  350  sailing  vessels, 
and  500  boats,  with  an  aggregate  of  3500  men,  are  employed 
in  this  fishery,  of  which  the  coast  of  Maine  is  the  largest 
and  most  profitable  field,  yielding  more  oil  to  the  number 
of  fish  caught.  Hence  this  interest  is  becoming  a  local 
one,  and  the  number  of  factories  is  constantly  increasing. 

At  Portland  nearly  all  the  factories  are  located  in 
Lincoln  County.  About  500  hands  are  employed,  and  the 
return  of  produce  is  to  the  value  of  iJ"ioo,000.  In  the 
prosecution  of  the  business  there,  a  numerous  fleet  of  small 
vessels  and  steamers  are  engaged,  giving  employment  on 
the  water  and  land  to  probably  not  less  than  1000  men. 

The  menhaden  fish  emerge  from  the  warm  waters  of 
the  Gulf  Stream,  and  strike  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  in  the 
month  of  April,  reach  the  coast  of  Maine  by  May  or  June, 
and  remain  till  October,  when  they  return  south. 

The  fishery  is  carried  on  by  the  very  smartest  of  yachts, 
not  fancifully  rigged  or  equipped,  but  the  fastest  sailers 
that  can  be  built  or  bought.  Some  of  the  best  boats  in  the 
yacht  clubs  find  their  way  into  this  service.  In  size  these 
vessels  rarely  exceed  20  or  30  tons  ;  say,  18  feet  beam  and 
50  feet  over  all.  Built  to  stand  the  heavy  gales  on  the 
coast,  and  well  provided  with  light  and  heavy  sails,  they 
are  able  to  cruise  in  weather  that  sends  fancy  boats  into  the 
harbours.  The  fishing  yachts  are  manned  with  from  eight 
to  ten  men  each.  To  make  the  outfit  complete,  two  sloops, 
called  carry-ways,  are  attached  to  each  yacht.     These  are 


22  2       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

smaller  than  the  latter.  Each  of  these  will  hold  70,000 
menhaden  (16  or  17  tons).  They  are  employed  in  taking 
the  fish  ashore  after  they  are  caught.  The  seines  are  made 
of  strong  cotton  twine,  and  are  130  fathoms  (780  feet)  long, 
and  from  80  to  100  feet  deep.  At  the  eastern  end  of 
Long  Island,  where  the  fishing  is  in  deep  water,  the  depth 
is  even  greater.  Along  the  bottom  of  the  seines  run  lines^ 
arranged  so  that  they  can  be  drawn  up  like  an  old- 
fashioned  purse — whence  the  name  "  purse-seines."  The 
top  of  the  seine  is  attached  to  buoys  of  cork  or  wood,  and 
these,  when  the  whole  is  thrown  into  the  water,  hold  the 
upper  edge  at  the  surface,  while  the  remainder  hangs 
vertically  beneath  it.  The  seine  is  loaded  into  two  boats, 
which  also  form  a  part  of  the  outfit  of  the  yacht,  and  are 
always  with  her  when  not  engaged  in  taking  fish. 

Thus  furnished,  the  yachts  start  on  a  cruise  in  search  of 
the  fish,  which  go  in  immense  schools.  When  a  school  is 
met  with,  it  is  necessary  to  drop  the  seine  in  front  of  them  ; 
otherwise  no  fish  would  be  taken,  as  they  would  swim 
away  in  front  before  the  seine  could  be  closed  around  them. 
The  boats  get  ahead  of  the  school,  and  pay  out  the  seine 
as  they  separate.  When  the  school  is  fairly  in  the  seine, 
the  boats  come  together  and  completely  surround  the  fish. 
At  the  point  where  the  boats  first  started,  a  heavy  weight, 
called  a  "tom,"  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  seine,  and  to 
this  weight,  which  rests  upon  the  bottom,  are  fastened  the 
lines  which  "  purse  "  up  the  bottom,  and  prevent  the  fish 
from  escaping  belov/.  When  the  bottom  is  drawn  to- 
gether, the  men  haul  the  seine  into  the  boats  and  shake  the 
fish  down  into  the  "  bunt,"  as  the  bag  or  purse  formed  by 
the  seine  is  called.  They  then  signal  for  the  carry-ways, 
which  come  alongside.  The  fish  are  taken  out  of  the  seine 
into  the  carry-ways  by  means  of  dip-nets.     If  the  school  is 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  connected  therewith.   223 

a  large  one,  and  most  of  the  fish  have  been  taken,  the 
carry-ways  are  despatched  at  once  to  the  factory  on  shore. 
If  not  quite  loaded,  they  are  generally  retained  until 
another  school  is  taken,  when  they  are  sent  off. 

When  they  reach  the  factory,  they  run  alongside  of  the 
dock,  and  the  fish  are  hoisted  out  into  a  car.  When  this  is 
full,  it  is  hauled  by  steam  up  the  track  leading  from  the 
dock  to  the  cooking-vats  and  thrown  into  them.  When 
a  vat  is  full  of  fish,  water  from  elevated  tanks  is  let  on 
until  the  fish  are  covered.  Then  steam  is  introduced  and 
the  whole  is  boiled.  To  properly  cook  a  tankful  of  fish 
takes  from  20  to  40  minutes,  according  to  circumstances. 
In  some  factories  the  cooking  is  very  short  ;  in  others,  it  is 
preferred  to  take  a  longer  time,  so  that  the  fish  shall  be 
equally  cooked  throughout  the  mass.  At  the  conclusion  of 
this  process  part  of  the  oil  has  been  boiled  out,  but  by  far 
the  greater  portion  still  remains  in  the  fish  ;  and  this  must 
be  removed  by  means  of  the  hydraulic  press.  With  one  of 
these  machines  from  200,000  to  300,000  fish  can  be  pressed 
in  10  hours.  Two  curbs  are  used  with  these  presses,  so 
that  there  is  no  delay  in  the  work. 

As  soon  as  the  oil  has  ceased  to  run  from  the  curb,  the 
press  is  lowered,  and  the  curb,  containing  the  mass  of 
scrap,  is  rolled  away  over  small  turn-tables  and  out  on  the 
track  to  the  scrap-houses,  where  the  two  handles  holding 
up  the  bottom  are  released,  and  the  whole  mass  is  thrown 
out.  While  this  is  going  on  another  curb  has  been  put  in 
the  press.  The  curb  then  comes  back  to  the  vats  for  a  new 
load.  In  this  way  the  work  goes  on  until  all  the  vats  are 
emptied.  The  oil  and  water  as  it  comes  from  the  press 
runs  down  to  the  scparating-tank.  In  this  tank  there  is  a 
partition  from  top  to  bottom.  The  oil  flows  across  this  in 
two  openings,  cut  in  the  top,  while  the  water  passes  under 


2  24       ^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  bottom.  Here  men  stand  and  skim  ofif  the  oil,  while 
the  water  is  allowed  to  run  away.  In  some  establish- 
ments the  separating-tank  is  so  arranged  that  the  oil 
can  flow  into  the  oil-tanks  without  having  to  be  dipped  out. 
This  of  course,  saves  much  labour. 

The  oil  is  now  stored  in  the  tanks.  When  a  better 
grade  of  oil  is  desired,  it  is  bleached  by  exposing  it  in  a 
shallow  "  sun-tank "  to  the  action  of  the  sun.  If  a  still 
finer  quality  is  required,  another  kind  of  tank  is  used, 
having  a  frame  for  the  reception  of  a  sash,  so  that  all  dust 
and  dirt  is  excluded,  and  the  oil  is  bleached  without  waste. 
In  the  bottom  of  the  vats,  in  the  separating-tanks,  and  else- 
where, a  great  mass  of  sediment  collects,  consisting  of  a 
fine  refuse,  mixed  with  some  oil.  This  is  put  into  the 
"gurry-tank,"  steam  is  turned  on,  and  it  is  thoroughly 
cooked  till  the  oil  rises  to  the  surface  ;  the  "  gurry "  that 
remains  is  then  put  up  in  barrels  and  sold  to  the  soap- 
makers,  who  use  it  for  making  "  fish-oil  soap." 

These  fish  yield  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  the  highest  per- 
centage being  about  four  and  a  half  gallons  per  barrel  of 
fish  in  the  month  of  September.  A  thousand  fish  will 
yield  on  the  average  13  to  14  gallons  of  oil,  though  this 
depends  largely  upon  the  season,  and  the  good  or  bad  con- 
dition of  the  fish. 

The  uses  to  which  the  oil  ia  put  are  very  numerous.  It 
is  said  to  be  good  for  table  purposes,  and,  when  properly 
prepared,  the  best  kind  is  extensively  used  under  the  name 
of  olive  oil.  As  a  vehicle  for  paint,  it  has  a  good  body,  and 
does  not  readily  abandon  the  paint  which  may  be  mixed 
with  it.  It  is  quite  rare  to  find  such  paint  rubbing  off  in 
the  shape  of  powder.  Much  of  the  linseed  oil  in  the 
market  has  a  large  amount  of  menhaden  oil  mixed  with  it. 
This  is  no  disadvantage  to  the  painter's  work,  but  a  serious 


Fish  Oils  and  the  Fisheries  cotmected  therewith.    225 

detriment  to  his  pocket.  Fish  oil  cannot,  however,  be  used 
for  lubrication.  Its  body  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
absorbs  oxygen  and  "  gums  "  entirely  precludes  its  applica- 
tion to  machinery.  The  literal  and  metaphorical  bad 
odour  formerly  attached  to  fish  oil  is  passing  away.  It  has 
been  found  that  by  cooking  th.e  fish  while  they  are  fresh  a 
perfectly  sweet  oil  can  be  obtained.  The  vile  smell  of 
former  (and  to  some  extent  of  latter)  days  resulted  from 
the  treatment  of  stale  or  decaying  fish.  The  common  kind 
of  oil  is  extensively  used  by  curriers  and  in  other  trades, 
and  the  flesh  and  bones,  after  the  oil  is  extracted,  form  a 
manure  which  is  in  great  demand  for  the  cotton  fields  of 
the  south. 

The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  this  business  is  very 
large.  In  1873  it  was  ascertained  that  ^500,000  was  in- 
vested in  43  factories  scattered  along  the  coasts  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  and  Maine. 
The  quantity  of  fish  caught  was  1,173,700  barrels.  The 
yield  of  oil,  2,250,000  gallons,  was  valued  at  over  £200fyZ)0  ; 
and  that  of  fish  manure,  36,000  tons,  at  ;^i 25,000. 


2  26       The  Commercial  Producis  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   SHARK   FISHERY   FOR   THE   OIL   OBTAINED. 

Fishery  in  Norway — The  Greenland  shark — Mode  of  capture — The  basking 
shark— Sharks  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand — Shark  fishery  in  India — 
Sharks'  fins  exported  to  China  for  food. 

The  Shark  Fishery  of  Norzvay. — There  are  four  species 
of  the  shark  tribe  which  inhabit  the  northern  latitudes, 
viz.,  the  Scymnus  borcalis  or  Sqiialus  glacialis,  Selache 
maxinius,  Sqiialus  acanthias,  and  Sqiuihis  spinax  nigcr. 

The  Greenland  shark  {Scymnus  borcalis)  frequents  in 
numbers  the  banks  which  are  traced  in  a  line  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  western  coast,  at  distances  varying  from 
50  to  100  miles  from  the  main  ;  in  greater  abundance,  how- 
ever, on  that  portion  which  lines  the  coast  of  Nordland  and 
Finmark,  as  far  as  the  North  Cape,  and  between  the  latter 
and  Cherry  or  Bear  Island.  They  are  to  be  met  with,  how- 
ever, all  over  the  North  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean,  as  well  as  in 
most  of  the  large  fiords  on  the  west  coast,  at  depths  vary- 
ing from  TOO  to  200  fathoms. 

Formerly  the  fishery  was  exclusively  confined  to  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  coast  ;  but  of  late  it  has  been 
more  specially  and  lucratively  prosecuted  on  the  banks, 
commencing  in  about  lat.  68°  to  the  North  Cape,  and 
between  that  and  Cherry  Island.     The  vessels  employed  in 


The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obtained.       227 

this  fishery  generally  range  from  25  to  35  tons,  manned 
with  a  crew  of  six  men.  They  lie  at  anchor  on  the  banks 
with  1 50  to  200  fathoms  water,  moored  by  a  grapnel  weigh- 
ing two  cwt.,  with  a  warp  about  300  fathoms  in  circum- 
ference. 

A  box  perforated  with  holes,  or  a  canvas  bag  containing 
the  residuum  or  refuse  of  blubber,  after  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted by  boiling,  is  attached  to  the  line  not  far  from  the 
bottom,  near  the  grapnel.  Globules  of  oil  are  found  to  ooze 
out  or  to  percolate  through  the  holes  or  bag,  and  to  float 
away  in  a  continuous  stream,  serving  as  a  decoy,  in  a 
similar  manner  as  the  cod  ova  are  applied  in  France,  where 
they  are  thrown  into  the  sea  as  ground  bait  to  attract  the 
sardines.  Led  by  this  stream,  the  sharks  are  guided  to  the 
main  bait,  which  is  attached  to  a  thin  iron  chain,  of  from 
one  to  two  fathoms  in  length.  This  is  fastened  to  a  line 
of  about  the  thickness  of  the  stem  of  a  common  tobacco- 
pipe.  At  the  end  of  the  chain  the  hook  is  attached,  which 
is  usually  of  the  size  of  a  salmon-gaff,  and  is  baited  with 
some  kind  of  fish,  or,  what  is  preferable,  about  a  pound  of 
seal  blubber.  The  seals  from  which  this  blubber  is  taken 
are  generally  caught  at  Spitzbergen,  and  there  salted  fresh. 
No  kind  of  bait  appears  so  efficacious  or  so  attractive  as 
this,  and  it  throws  off  readily  its  fatty  particles,  which 
being  carried  to  a  considerable  distance,  form  a  trail  to 
the  bait,  which  the  fish  greedily  take,  if  of  blubber;  but,  it 
has  been  observed,  not  so  readily  if  the  blubber  is  at  all 
rancid.  Five  barrels  of  blubber  is  considered  necessary  for 
the  season,  and  appears  to  be  the  average  quantity  used  by 
each  vessel. 

On  hooking  the  shark,  he  is  hauled  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  by  the  aid  of  a  single  purchase.  Each  vessel  is 
furnished  with  four  of  these,  two  on  each  side.     The  line, 


2  28       The  Comtnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

being  small,  is  only  calculated  to  bring  the  fish  to  the  level 
of  the  water ;  his  nose  is  then  hauled  a  little  above  the 
surface,  and  a  smart  blow  is  immediately  struck,  by  which  he 
becomes  stunned.  A  large  hook  at  the  end  of  a  pole, 
attached  to  a  strong  tackle,  is  then  driven  into  the  fish,  and 
by  this  means  he  is  hauled  on  deck.  The  belly  is  cut  open 
and  the  liver  taken  out.  A  hole  is  then  made  in  the 
stomach  for  the  purpose  of  inflating  it  with  wind,  which 
done,  the  hole  is  again  tied  up,  the  fish  got  into  the  water, 
and  permitted  to  float  away.  The  stomach  being  inflated 
prevents  the  fish  sinking,  and  it  soon  drifts  out  of  sight. 
By  being  kept  afloat,  the  fishermen  imagine  that  the  carcase 
cannot  injure  the  fishing  grounds. 

The  length  of  this  fish  varies  from  lo  to  i8  feet.  The 
value  depends  upon  the  size,  quantity,  and  quality  of  the 
liver,  which  yields  from  one-half  to  two  barrels,  or  from  1 5 
to  60  gallons  of  fine  oil  each. 

This  shark  is  caught  nearer  the  coast,  as  far  as  Waranger 
Fiord.  The  fishery  commences  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  is  continued  through  the  winter  until  the  end 
of  February  with  deep-sea  lines,  in  open  boats  manned  by 
five  men. 

The  bait  preferred  is  either  porpoise  or  seal  blubber. 
The  line  is  retained  on  the  finger,  and  as  soon  as  the  man 
feels  that  the  bait  has  been  touched,  he  gives  a  sharp  jerk, 
in  order  to  fix  the  hook  more  firmly  in  the  jaws  of  the  fish. 
Some  skill  and  experience  is  required  to  effect  this  at  the 
proper  moment,  as  the  fish  no  sooner  finds  himself  caught 
than  he  spins  round  the  line,  and  on  these  occasions  the 
line  is  liable  to  be  severed  by  the  sharp  edges' of  the  skin. 
The  greatest  activity  is,  at  the  same  time,  requisite  in 
hauling  the  fish  to  the  surface,  in  order  to  check  the 
rotatory  movement. 


The  Shark  Fishe)y  for  the  Oil  obtained.       229 

It  happens  not  unfrcqucntly  on  these  occasions  that 
several  sharks  come  to  the  surface  of  the  Avater  in  the  wake 
of  the  one  hooked,  swim  round  the  boat,  and  are  caught 
by  means  of  a  swivel  hook,  fixed  to  a  long  gaff,  which 
each  boat  is  furnished  with.  They  are  then  secured  by  a 
hook  and  strong  line  to  the  stem  of  the  boat,  until  they 
can  be  hauled  alongside. 

The  result  of  a  fishery  carried  on  in  open  boats  depends 
greatly  on  the  wind  and  weather.  When  a  boat's  crew 
obtain  from  two  to  four  barrels  of  liver,  they  are  satisfied. 
Under  favourable  circumstances,  however,  they  obtain  from 
seven  to  eight;  and  if  during  the  course  of  the  winter  they 
can  get  from  40  to  50  barrels,  the  catch  is  esteemed  a 
remarkably  good  one.  Besides  the  liver,  when  the  fish  can 
be  towed  to  the  shore,  the  flesh  is  converted  into  food  for 
the  cattle,  if  there  is  a  scarcity  of  dried  cod's  heads,  which 
are  prepared  for  that  purpose. 

The  flesh  is  occasionally  used  also  for  human  food,  being 
cut  up  into  long  strips  and  wind-dried  in  the  open  air,  or 
buried  in  the  ground  until  partially  decomposed,  when  it  is 
taken  up  and  prepared  in  a  peculiar  maimer,  so  as  to 
become  edible.  It  requires,  however,  an  Arctic  stomach 
to  digest  it. 

The  basking  shark  {Selaclic  inaximus),  another  of  the 
genus,  the  largest  of  sea-fish,  is  found  all  along  the  coast 
from  Ryvarden,  lat.  59°  31',  up  to  Finmark.  This  fishery 
was  for  a  long  time  pursued  with  great  activity  and  per- 
severance, and  with  such  success  as  foi*  a  series  of  con- 
secutive years  to  form  the  staple  and  chief  support  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  districts  in  which  it  was  carried  on. 
Of  late  years  their  numbers  have  decreased  so  as  to 
diminish  the  importance  it  had  for  years  maintained.  The 
increased  herring  fishery  which  has  followed,  however,  fully 
compensates  for  the  decline. 


230        The  Co7nmei^cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

This  shark  differs  from  his  fellows  in  not  being  a 
voracious  fish  ;  consequently  it  is  neither  to  be  enticed  nor 
caught  by  the  same  kind  of  bait  or  mode  of  fishing  as 
pursued  with  the  Scymniis  borealis,  but  rather  that  fol- 
lowed with  the  whale.  About  the  last  of  the  dog-days, 
when  the  water  and  weather  are  at  their  highest  tempera- 
ture, this  shark  makes  his  appearance  on  the  coast,  and 
the  fishery  immediately  commences. 

Large  open  boats  are  generally  employed,  from  "i^J  to 
42  feet  in  length,  each  boat  being  manned  by  four  men 
and  furnished  with  harpoons  similar  to  those  used  in 
harpooning  the  sturgeon.  The  harpoon  is  attached  to  a 
line  proportioned  to  the  depth  of  water  on  the  ground 
selected,  which  usually  is  from  300  to  400  fathoms.  This 
rope  lies  coiled  up  in  the  bow  of  the  boat. 

Thus  equipped,  the  fishermen,  selecting  a  light  breeze 
and  warm  weather,  cruise  about  under  a  triangular  sail, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  fiord  the  fish  are  in  the  habit  of 
seeking.  They  are  generally  found  lying  perfectly  still 
near  the  surface,  apparently  basking  in  the  sun,  and  slowly 
follow  in  the  wake  of  the  boat  as  soon  as  discovered  ; 
the  large  fin  on  the  back,  standing  prominently  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  indicating  their  presence  and  move- 
ments. 

The  fishermen  imagine,  from  his  following  the  boat, 
that  he  is  decoyed  to  the  surface  by  the  sm.all  triangular 
sail,  which  he  mistakes  for  another  fish.  Certain  it  is  that, 
whatever  the  temptation  may  be,  the  fish  follows  closely 
the  boat  without  being  disturbed  for  a  considerable  time, 
although  sometimes  carrying  a  stiff  breeze.  When  the  fish 
approaches  close  enough,  the  harpooner,  watching  his 
opportunity,  sends  his  harpoon  as  deep  into  the  body  of  the 
fish  as  he  is  able.     Then  arrives  the  perilous  moment,  for 


The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obtained.       23 1 

the  fish  no  sooner  feels  the  weapon  than  he  dives  with  great 
celerity. 

Everything  must  be  clear,  to  allow  the  line  to  run  out 
freely  ;  and  it  does  so  with  such  rapidity  as  to  require  one 
of  the  men  to  be  incessantly  pouring  water  over  the  swivel 
on  which  the  line  traverses,  to  prevent  its  igniting.  Should 
the  line  unfortunately  catch  any  projecting  piece  of  wood,  or 
meet  with  any  impediment,  the  boat  is  inevitably  capsized  ; 
or  should  one  of  the  men,  through  carelessness  or 
accident,  be  caught  by  the  line  round  the  leg  or  arm,  which 
has  occasionally  happened,  he  gets  hauled  down  by  the 
fish.  Another  man,  therefore,  always  stands  ready  with  an 
axe  to  cut  the  line  ;  but  when  such  an  accident  does  occur, 
generally  both  man  and  fish  are  lost.  When  the  fish  has 
reached  the  bottom,  he  proceeds  along  it,  continuing  to 
drag  the  boat  with  him,  until  his  strength  becomes  ex- 
hausted. A  lean  fish  holds  out  longer  than  a  fat  one,  and 
will  sometimes  continue  dragging  for  four  and  twenty  hours, 
while  a  fat  one  generally  gets  tired  out  in  three  or  four 
hours. 

When  thoroughly  exhausted,  the  fish  is  hauled  up  to 
the  surface  alongside  the  boat,  and  with  a  long,  sharp 
knife,  the  fin  is  instantly  cut  oft"  to  prev^ent  his  striking,  as 
a  blow  would  readily  smash  the  boat-  He  is  then  speared 
until  quite  dead.  Before  commencing  to  extract  the  liver, 
the  fish  is  fastened  by  sundry  ropes  to  the  mast,  and 
turned,  when  one  of  the  men,  provided  with  a  long  knife 
for  the  purpose,  opens  the  fore  part  of  the  belly,  which 
enables  him  to  take  out  a  large  piece  of  the  liver.  He 
then  insinuates  his  arm  in,  and  separates  all  the  fibres  and 
integuments,  so  as  effectually  to  release  the  liver,  which 
operation  requires  to  be  carefully  performed.  When  com- 
pleted, the  stomach  is  ripped  up  from  end  to  end.     The 


232        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

liver  then  floats  out,  the  belly  fills  with  water,  and  the 
fish  is  cast  adrift  and  immediately  sinks.  The  liver  is  then 
taken  into  the  boat,  and  the  fishery  is  concluded. 

The  size  and  fatness  of  the  fish  vary  considerably.  The 
prevailing  size  there  is  from  30  to  35  feet.  They  have  been 
caught  as  long  as  40  feet,  but  this  is  now  a  rarity.  Young 
fish  are  never  met  with  ;  they  doubtless  keep  in  deep  water 
until  of  mature  growth.  The  size  of  the  liver  depends 
greatly  on  the  condition  of  the  fish.  They  usually  render 
from  four  to  seven  barrels  of  liver,  occasionally  as  much  as 
from  10  to  16.  Instances  even  have  been  known  where 
as  much  as  24  barrels  have  been  obtained  from  a  single 
fish ;  but  this  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  When  the  liver 
is  rich,  six  barrels  will  produce  five  barrels  of  oil  of  30 
gallons  each.     No  other  part  of  the  fish  is  utilized. 

Of  the  remaining  species  of  the  shark  tribe,  there  are 
only  two,  besides  the  foregoing,  which  are  of  any  import- 
ance on  this  coast.  The  first  is  the  picked  dog-fish, 
Sqnahcs  acanthias,  which  in  former  times  was  in  great 
abundance  along  the  whole  coast  from  Gothenburg,  and 
afforded  lucrative  employment  to  the  fishermen.  At 
present  the  fishery  is  carried  on  during  the  whole  of  the 
summer  from  the  Naze  to  the  North  Cape,  in  the  fiords  as 
well  as  along  the  coast. 

This  is  a  ravenous  fish,  which  is  caught  in  various  ways. 
About  midsummer  he  is  observed  to  swim  near  the  sur- 
face, and  can  then  be  taken  in*  nets,  as  Avell  as  with  lines, 
precaution  being  taken  to  protect  the  line  by  proper 
"serving"  for  a  short  distance  beyond  the  hook,  to  prevent 
its  being  bitten  off.  This  fish  is  eaten  sometimes  fresh, 
but  must  be  skinned  before  being  cooked.  When  cooked 
in  this  way,  it  is  considered  rather  a  delicacy.  It  is  also 
dried   as  split  stock-fish  for  consumption   in   the  country, 


The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obtained.       233 

as  well  as  for  export  to  Sweden,  where  it  is  greatly  appre- 
ciated. The  yolk  of  this  shark's  &^^  is  used  by  the  in- 
habitants as  a  substitute  for  other  eggs  in  their  domestic 
economy.  The  skin  is  employed  by  joiners  and  turners 
for  polishing  purposes.  The  liver  is  exceedingly  rich,  and 
makes  a  very  fine  oil. 

The  other  species  is  called  in  Norway  the  kulp  or 
hoastorsk  {Squalus  spinax  niger),  and  is  the  smallest  of  the 
shark  tribe.  It  is  met  with  in  all  the  deep  fiords  along  the 
coast,  where  it  commits  great  mischief  by  nibbling  off  the 
baits  from  the  deep-sea  lines  which  are  set  out  for  the  ling 
and  the  torsk  {Brosnius  vulgaris). 

Lines  with  single  hooks  are  never  laid  out  to  catch  this 
fish  ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  summer  and  autumn,  and  in 
some  fiords  all  the  year  round,  instead  of  a  single  hook, 
they  employ  10  to  12,  placed  one  above  the  other,  baited 
with  half-decayed  or  tainted  fish.  The  depth  of  water 
selected  is  from  60  to  100  fathoms.  As  the  kulp  is  a 
sluggish  fish,  bites  lightly,  and  is  small,  some  experience 
is  required  to  know  when  he  bites  and  is  secured  on  the 
hook,  especially  if  there  is  any  wind.  The  line,  however,  is 
not  brought  up  each  time  the  bite  is  felt,  as  there  are  many 
hooks  ;  a  simple  tug  is  given  at  every  supposed  bite.  The 
fish  being  once  hooked  generally  remains  quiet,  and  one 
usually  finds  8  or  10  fish  caught  when  the  line  is  drawn  up. 
As  this  fish  comes  in  shoals  and  takes  the  bait  freely,  an 
experienced,  skilful  fisherman  will  occasionally,  during  a 
single  night,  obtain  a  rich  booty.  The  kulp  will  not  bite 
during  the  day.  It  is  not  eaten,  but  sought  after  ex- 
clusively for  the  liver,  which  is  unusually  rich,  and  yields 
a  very  superior  kind  of  oil. 

In  the  bays  about  the  peninsula  of  Kola,  La^^land,  the 
shark  fishery  is  now  vigorously  carried  on  by  the  Russians  j 

n 


234       ^^^  Commercial  P^'od^ids  of  the  Sea. 

the  species  chiefly  taken  is  the  Scyinnns  borealis.  The 
fishery  is  only  prosecuted  off  the  coast  in  small  undecked 
boats,  manned  by  four  men.  In  autumn  the  sharks  are 
in  the  best  condition  and  yield  the  most  oil  ;  in  summer 
they  scarcely  afford  any.  Some  of  the  large  species  of 
basking  sharks  will  yield  as  much  as  1600  lbs.  of  oil.  The 
crude  shark  oil  sells  in  Russia  at  about  6.5".  the  poud  of 
36  lbs.,  and  when  refined  is  worth  double  that  price. 

Sharks  are  caught  on  the  New  Zealand  shores  in  great 
numbers,  during  the  months  of  November,  December,  and 
January,  by  the  natives,  who  use  them  as  an  article  of 
food.  The  fins  can  be  procured  at  a  very  moderate  rate, 
and  fetch  a  good  price  in  the  China  market. 

The  Government  of  the  colony  of  Victoria  having  pub- 
lished a  scale  of  rewards  for  the  capture  of  sharks,  the 
pursuit  has  become  a  frequent  occupation  among  the 
fishermen  and  boatmen  of  Hobson's  Bay.  In  one  week  in 
May,  1877,  over  3500  sharks  were  captured  by  the  fisher- 
men of  Sandridge,  some  of  whom  earned  from  £1  to  £^ 
per  day.  One  immense  shark,  measuring  between  15  and 
16  feet  in  length,  was  caught  in  the  bay. 

It  was  stated  some  years  ago  that  there  were  13  boats, 
manned  with  1 2  men  each,  constantly  engaged  in  the  shark 
fishery  at  Kurrachce.  One  boat  will  sometimes  capture  at 
a  draught  as  many  as  100  sharks  of  different  sizes.  The 
average  capture  of  each  boat  probably  amounts  to  about 
3000,  making  the  number  of  sharks  taken  not  less  than 
■40,000  a  year.  The  great  basking  shark,  or  mhor  {Selachc 
inaximus),  is  always  harpooned  ;  it  is  found  floating  or 
asleep  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  liver  of  a  large 
fish  of  this  species  yields  there  eight  barrels  of  oil.  The 
oil  is  of  a  very  low  specific  gravity. 

The  fish,  once  struck,  is  allowed  to  run  till  tired  ;  it  is 


The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obiained.       235 

then  pulled  in,  and  beaten  with  clubs  till  stunned.  A  large 
hook  is  now  hooked  into  its  eyes  or  nostrils,  or  wherever  it 
can  be  got  most  easily  attached,  and  by  this  the  shark  is 
towed  to  shore ;  several  boats  are  requisite  for  towing. 
The  mhor  is  often  40,  sometimes  60,  feet  in  length  ;  the 
mouth  is  occasionally  four  feet  wide.  All  other  varieties  of 
shark  are  caught  in  nets,  somewhat  like  the  way  in  which 
herrings  are  caught  at  home.  The  net  is  made  of  strong 
English  whipcord  ;  the  meshes  about  six  inches  ;  they  are 
generally  six  feet  wide,,  and  from  600  to  800  fathoms,  or 
from  three-quarters  to  nearly  a  mile  in  length.  On  the 
one  side  are  floats  of  wood  about  four  feet  in  length,  at 
intervals  of  six  feet;  on  the  other,  pieces  of  stone.  The  nets 
are  sunk  in  deep  water,  from  80  to  150  feet,  well  out  at  sea. 

They  are  put  in  one  day  and  taken  out  the  next,  so 
that  they  are  down  two  or  three  times  a  week,  according 
to  the  state  of  the  weather  and  success  of  the  fishing. 
The  small  sharks  are  commonly  found  dead,  the  larger 
ones  much  exhausted.  On  being  taken  home,  the  back 
fins,  the  only  ones  used,  are  cut  off  and  dried  on  the  sands 
in  the  sun  ;  the  flesh  is  cut  off  in  long  strips,  and  salted  for 
food  ;  the  liver  is  taken  out  and  boiled  down  for  oil  ;  the 
head,  bones,  and  intestines  left  on  the  shore  to  rot,  or 
thrown  into  the  sea,  where  numberless  little  sharks  are 
generally  on  the  watch  to  eat  up  the  remains  of  their 
kindred.  The  species  chiefly  caught  are  the  Rhyiicobatiis 
pectinata,  R.  Icevis,  and  Galiocerda  tigriiia. 

Owing  to  the  large  size  of  the  sharks  from  which  the 
livers  are  taken,  the  Malabar  fishermen,  unlike  those  of 
Sind,  are  unable  to  capture  them  with  nets.  Putrid  beef  or 
porpoise  flesh  is  employed,  large  pieces  being  buried  for  a 
day  or  two  previous  to  being  used.  The  hook  is  attached 
by  a  chain  to  the  line  whilst  the  fishing  is  carried  on. 


236       The  Commercial  Pro  dice  ts  of  the  Sea, 

In  Sind  large  quantities  of  oil  are  prepared  from  the 
livers  of  different  fish.  The  sharks  {Carcliarias  melanopterus) 
are  caught  principally  in  October  and  November,  for  at 
that  period  the  livers  are  much  more  developed  than  at 
any  other  season.  The  oil  obtained  from  them  is  of  the 
same  quality  whatever  the  season,  but  they  furnish  about 
three  times  the  quantity  in  autumn  that  they  do  in  any 
other  season.  The  most  esteemed  livers  are  firm,  and 
of  a  rose  colour ;  those  which  are  whitish  and  flabby  are 
rejected  as  inferior.  After  having  separated  the  vesicle, 
the  livers  are  washed,  and  all  the  blood  is  taken  out 
through  incisions.  They  are  then  cut  into  medium-sized 
pieces,  which  are  placed  in  a  large  earthen  vessel  with 
enough  water  to  cover  them.  They  are  now  heated  for  1 5 
or  20  minutes,  after  which  they  are  allowed  to  cool.  The 
oil,  which  soon  floats  to  the  surface,  is  gathered  in  ladles 
made  from  the  half  of  a  cocoa-nut,  and  is  then  poured  into 
glazed  earthenware  jars.  It  is  now  passed  through  a  sieve, 
and  all  which  does  not  pass  through  is  thrown  away. 
Three  or  four  days  later,  it  is  again  filtered  through  a 
thick -strainer,  in  order  to  separate  the  abundant  deposit  of 
stearine,  and  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  this  operation  four 
times,  at  intervals  of  from  20  to  25  days,  to  separate  the 
deposit ;  after  which  the  oil  remains  clear,  of  a  fine  straw 
colour,  and  smelling  very  much  like  cod-liver  oil.  Thus 
prepared,  it  is  reserved  for  medical  purposes. 

In  India  a  manufacture  of  inferior  oil  is  also  carried  on, 
which  is  used  for  lighting  and  other  domestic  purposes.  It 
is  prepared  from  the  liver  of  sharks,  rays,  and  other  sorts  of 
fish  mixed.  The  livers  are  heated  without  being  previously 
washed  or  picked,  and  the  product  is  not  purified. 

From  Bombay  sharks'  fins  weighing  6ocx)  to  9000  cwts. 
are  exported  annually,  valued  at  from  ;^  14,000  to  ;^20,ooo. 


The  Shark  Fishery  for  the  Oil  obtained.       237 

Besides  the  local  catch,  large  quantities  are  imported  from 
the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs.  There  is  a  small  export 
of  these  fins  from  Madras  to  the  extent  of  250  to  300 
cwts.  annually.  They  are  assorted  into  the  "  white  "  and 
"  black,"  the  former  being  the  dorsal  fins,  which  are  uni- 
formly light  coloured  on  both  sides,  and  reputed  to  yield 
more  gelatine  than  the  other  ;  the  "black"  are  the  pectoral, 
ventral,  and  anal  fins,  which  are  less  esteemed  than  the 
white,  and  consequently  realize  a  lower  price. 

Sharks'  fins  are  sent  to  China  from  various  quarters  ; 
from  Akyab,  Sumatra,  Manila,  Borneo,  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  other  places.  They  are  much  esteemed  as  a 
food  substance,  being  used  for  making  soup. 


238       The  Commercial  Pt^odticts  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   ISINGLASS   OF   COMMERCE. 

Description  and  uses  of  isinglass — Fish  from  wliicli  obtained — Russian  isinglass 
— Vesiga — Brazilian   isinglass — West  Indian  isinglass- — North  American 
'isinglass— Chinese  isinglass — Fish  maws  and  sharks'  fins. 

Isinglass,  one  of  the  purest  and  finest  of  the  animal  glues, 
is  a  product  the  preparation  of  which  was  long  carried  on 
almost  exclusively  in  Russia,  and  chiefly  obtained  from  the 
sturgeon.  The  value  of  the  isinglass  from  this  fish  is 
chiefly  due  to  its  peculiar  organic  texture,  on  which  the 
property  of  clarifying  wines  and  beers  depends.  No  arti- 
ficial isinglass,  however  pure  the  gelatine,  or  identical  as  to 
chemical  composition  with  the  air-bladder  of  the  sturgeon, 
answers  the  purpose  of  the  preparers  of  fermented  liquors. 

Isinglass  is  brought  to  market  in  different  forms  ;  some- 
times in  that  of  plates  or  lumps,  or  in  the  form  of  a  bag  or 
purse,  at  other  times  rolled  up  in  different  shapes,  which 
pass  under  the  names  of  book,  leaf,  long  and  short  staples, 
tongue  or  pipe,  and  it  is  cut  into  fine  threads.  When  of 
good  quality,  isinglass  is  of  a  whitish  colour,  thin,  and  semi- 
transparent,  but  tough  and  flexible,  destitute  of  taste  as 
well  as  of  smell.  The  inferior  kinds  are  thicker,  yellowish 
coloured,  opaque,  and  sometimes  have  a  fishy  smell  and 
tast2.     When  placed  in  cold  water,  it  becomes  soft,  then 


The  Isinglass  of  Cominei'ce.  239 

swells,  and  if  held  up  to  the  light  in  this  state  is  opalescent. 
In  boiling  water  pure  isinglass  is  entirely  dissolved,  with 
the  exception  of  a  very  minute  proportion  of  impurities. 
Though  the  best  isinglass  is  thus  completely  dissolved  in 
hot  water,  yet  most  of  that  met  with  in  commerce  does  not 
become  so,  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  albuminous 
parts. 

The  fine  shreds  into  which  it  is  cut  and  kept  in  shops 
give  great  facility  for  making  a  jelly  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  This  can  be  made  palatable  and  nourishing 
by  the  addition  of  sugar  and  milk,  acids  or  spices  ;  about 
one-third  or  half  an  ounce  is  sufficient  for  a  pint  of  water. 
It  may  also  be  taken  in  the  form  of  a  soup,  with  the 
addition  of  salt,  spices,  and  sweet  herbs,  or  it  may  be 
employed  medicinally  as  a  demulcent;  either  externally  or 
internally.  The  best  kinds  of  isinglass  are  alone  employed 
in  articles  of  diet  and  for  the  best  confectionery,  being- 
added  in  small  quantities  to  other,  especially  vegetable, 
jellies,  to  give  them  a  tremulous  appearance  ;  but  gelatine 
is  now  frequently  substituted. 

Isinglass  appears  to  have  been  discovered  many  ages 
since,  for  certainly  it  was  known  to  the  Romans,  being 
mentioned  by  Pliny,  It  is  obtained  in  several  parts  of  the 
world  from  the  air-vessels  (termed  "  sounds  "  or  "  maws  ") 
of  various  species  of  sea,  estuary,  and  fresh-water  fishes, 
England  procures  the  best  from  Russia,  where  it  is  prin- 
cipally collected  from  the  family  Accipcnscridce  or  stur- 
geons, and  the  following  species,  according  to  Brandt 
and  Ratzeburg,  furnish  it : — Accipenscr  sturio,  the  common 
sturgeon  ;  A.  huso,  the  great  sturgeon  ;  A.  Gtddcnstadtii, 
the  osseter ;  A.  rathemis,  the  sterlet;  A.  stellatiis,  the 
sevruga  or  starred  sturgeon,  in  which  account  are  likewise 
included  the  A.  brevirostris ;  A.  schypa ;  A.  Rat::ebHrgii ; 


240       The  Commercial  Prodtids  of  the  Sea. 

A.  Lichtcnstcinii ;  also  A.  viaailosus,  and  A.  oxyrJiyncJius 
from  North  America. 

Isinglass  has,  in  a  measure,  had  its  consumption  checked 
by  its  high  price,  and  substitutes  are  employed,  such  as 
gelatine  (of  which  it  is  itself  the  purest  form).  It  is  of  a 
highly  nutritious  and  unirritating  nature,  admirably  adapted 
for  the  sick  room,  and  the  preparation  of  some  forms  of 
confectionery  and  cookery,  besides  being  employed  both 
externally  and  internally  in  medicine,  in  the  preparation  of 
court  plaster,  in  some  arts  and  manufactures,  but  more 
extensively  for  clarifying  or  fining  wines  and  beer.  The 
brewer  employs  it  as  follows  : — Some,  having  been  finely 
divided,  is  dissolved  in  sour  beer,  to  the  consistence  of  a 

Fig.  18. 


The  Sturgeon. 

thick  mucilage,  and  a  portion  is  added  to  the  fluid  wliich 
it  is  intended  to  clarify,  and  after  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
suspended  substances  subside.  Some  suppose  that  all 
floating  particles  become  entangled  in  the  isinglass,  and, 
uniting  with  it,  form  an  insoluble  compound  which  becomes 
precipitated  ;  others,  that  when  dissolved  in  a  fluid  it 
lessens  its  affinity  for  the  suspended  particles,  which,  being 
thus  set  free,  subside. 

The  finest  description  of  isinglass  is  thin,  tough  but 
flexible,  white,  semi-transparent,  and  destitute  of  both  taste 
or  smell ;  it  almost  entirely  dissolves  in  boiling  water,  and 


The  Isinglass  of  Commerce.  241 

provided  it  contains  as  much  as  one-hundredth  of  its 
weight  of  gelatine,  has  the  property  of  gelatinizing  or 
assuming  the  form  of  a  soft,  tremulous  solid  as  it  cools. 
The  inferior  sorts  are  thick,  opaque,  white,  or  yellow, 
having  a  fishy  taste  and  smell,  and  only  partially  dissolve. 
The  commonest  kind,  termed  cake  isinglass,  is  of  a  brownish 
colour,  having  an  unpleasant  smell,  and  is  only  used  in  the 
arts,  and  for  the  preparation  of  glue.  The  Brazilian  isin- 
glass is  very  inferior  to  the  Russian,  and  is  in  the  form 
of  pipe,  block,  honeycomb,  cake,  and  tongue  isinglass. 
The  North  American  is  like  long  ribbons,  produced  from 
the  air-vessels  of  the  OtolitJius  rcgalis,  Bl.  Schn. 

Russian  Isinglass. — Isinglass  is  obtained  in  Russia  from 
the  interior  lining  of  the  swimming-bladder  of  the  sturgeon 
{Accipcnscr),  the  Silunis  glanis,  the  Iitciopcrca  Wolgcnsis, 
Pall.,  and  the  large  carps.  The  Corcgouiis  Icucichtys  also 
furnishes  a  little. 

The  air-bladders  are  left  for  some  days  in  water,  which  is 
frequently  changed,  in  order  to  remove  the  fatty  and  bloody 
particles  ;  they  are  then  withdrawn  and  cut  lengthwise  into 
sheets,  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  the  outer  part 
being  attached  to  boards.  The  inside,  which  is  formed  of 
layers  of  pure  isinglass,  is  carefully  detached  from  the  ex- 
terior layers,  wrapped  in  linen,  and  pressed,  in  order  to 
keep  it  from  contracting ;  it  is  then  made  up  into  parcels 
according  to  size.  The  parcels  of  isinglass  of  the  large 
sturgeon  are  composed  of  from  10  to  15  sheets,  and  weigh 
about  a  pound  and  a  quarter  ;  those  of  the  ordinary 
sturgeon  contain  25  sheets,  and  weigh  one  pound.  These 
parcels,  to  the  number  of  80,  are  packed  in  a  linen  bag, 
covered  with  rush  matting,  and  sent  away  sealed  with  lead ; 
38  lbs.  are  worth,  at  Astrakhan,  from  £\<^  ^.  to  ^28  \6s., 
according  to  quality.     The  air-bladder,  although  deprived 


242        The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

of  its  internal  parts,  still  contains  a  little  isinglass,  which  is 
scraped  off  with  a  knife  and  kneaded  ;  after  being  damped 
with  water,  it  is  made  into  small  tablets  about  the  size  of  a 
five-shilling  piece.  The  sheets  of  isinglass  of  the  Silurus 
glanis  are  placed  like  leaves  in  a  book,  and  are  dried  upon 
small  cords;  it  is  made  up  into  bags  of  152  lbs.  Carp 
isinglass  {Cyprinns  carpid)  is  made  into  parcels  of  30  ;  and, 
lastly,  a  good  fish-glue  is  made  at  Astrakhan  from  the 
scales  of  the  fish. 

Vcsiga  is  the  name  given  to  the  dorsal  cord  or  tendons 
of  the  vertebral  column  of  the  larger  species  of  sturgeons, 
prepared  in  a  certain  manner,  and  much  esteemed  for  the 
table.  The  quantity  prepared  reaches  the  value  of  ;i^20,000 
annually.  It  is  first  carefully  washed  and  pressed  to  ex- 
tract the  soft  matter  which  it  contains,  then  dried  and 
put  up  in  packets  the  entire  length,  and  folded  in  the 
middle.  It  is  used  chopped  up  in  the  preparation  of  small 
fish-cakes,  much  esteemed  in  Russia.  The  Russian  poud 
of  about  36  lbs.  is  worth  £2  \Q)S.  to  ^3  '^s. 

The  mode  of  preparation  in  Russia  is  as  follows  : — 
The  sound  is  taken  from  the  fish  while  sweet  and  fresh, 
slit  open,  washed  from  the  slimy  sordes,  divested  of  every 
thin  membrane  which  envelops  the  sound,  and  then 'ex- 
posed to  stiffen  in  the  air.  When  the  sounds  of  the  cod  or 
ling  are  prepared,  the  only  difference  is  that  they  are  slit 
open,  washed  in  lime-water  in  order  to  absorb  their  oily 
particles,  and  then  in  clean  water,  when  they  are  laid 
upon  nets  to  dry.  In  the  present  Russian  factories  of  the 
Caspian  and  Volga,  the  fresh  sounds  are  first  slit  open,  well 
washed  to  separate  the  blood  and  impurities,  then  spread 
out  and  exposed  to  the  air  to  dry,  with  the  inner  silvery- 
white  membrane  turned  upwards.  This,  which  is  nearly 
pure  gelatine,  is  carefully  stripped  off,  laid  in  damp  cloths 


The  Isinglass  of  Coinincrce.  243 

(or  left  in  the  outer  covering),  and  forcibly  kneaded  with 
the  hands.  It  is  then  taken  out  of  the  cloths,  dried  in  the 
form  of  leaf  isinglass,  or  rolled  up,  and  drawn  out  in  a 
serpentine  manner  into  the  form  of  a  heart,  horseshoe,  or 
lyre  (long  and  short  staple)  between  three  pegs,  on  a  board 
covered  with  them  ;  here  they  are  fixed  in  their  places  by 
wooden  skewers.  When  they  are  somewhat  dried  there, 
they  are  hung  on  lines  in  the  shade,  till  their  moisture  is 
entirely  dissipated.  The  oblong  pieces  are  sometimes 
folded  in  the  form  of  book  isinglass.  In  order  to  obtain 
good  isinglass,  it  is  necessary  to  have  well-arranged  rooms 
to  dry  it  in,  as  at  Astrakhan.  According  to  Pallas,  at 
the  lower  parts  of  the  Volga,  a  fine  gelatine  is  boiled  out 
of  the  fresh  swimming-bladders,  and  then  poured  into  all 
kinds  of  forms.  In  Gurief,  a  fine  boiled  fish-glue  is  pre- 
pared, perfectly  transparent,  having  the  colour  of  amber, 
which  is  cast  into  slabs  and  plates.  The  Ostiaks  also  boil 
their  fish-glue  in  a  kettle.  The  common  cake  isinglass  is 
formed  of  the  fragments  of  the  other  sorts  ;  these  are  put 
into  a  flat  metallic  pan,  with  a  very  little  water,  and  heated 
just  enough  to  make  the  parts  cohere  like  a  pancake,  when 
it  is  dried. 

Indian  Isinglass. — Attention  was  first  directed  to  this 
product  by  Dr.  Cantor,  who  stated  that  the  suleah  fish  of 
Bengal,  when  at  its  full  size,  attains  about  four  feet  in 
length,  and  is  squaliform,  resembling  the  shark  species  in 
appearance,  but  exhibiting  a  more  delicate  structure.  The 
flesh  of  the  fish  is  exceedingly  coarse,  and  is  converted 
by  the  natives,  when  salted  and  spiced,  into  bnrtah,  a 
piquant  relish  well  known  at  the  breakfast-tables  of  Bengal. 
The  air-bladder  of  the  suleah  may  be  considered  the  most 
valuable  part  of  it ;  this,  when  exposed  to  the  sun  and 
suffered  to  dry,  becomes  finely  pellucid,  and  so  hard  that 


244       ^/^^  Commei'cial  Pj^o ducts  of  the  Sea. 

it  will  repel  the  edge  of  a  sharp  knife  when  applied  to  it. 
These  bladders,  when  perfectly  dried,  vary  in  weight  from 
half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  avoirdupois.  This  fish 
abounds  in  Channel  Creek,  off  Saugor,  and  in  the  mouths 
of  all  the  rivers  which  intersect  the  Sunderbunds  they  are 
exceedingly  plentiful  in  certain  seasons. 

The  discovery  of  isinglass  as  a  product  of  India  was  so 
important  that  Dr.  Cantor  determined  to  investigate  the 
subject,  and  to  ascertain  what  were  the  fishes  which  yielded 
it.  These  seemed  to  be  principally  one  or  two  species  of 
Polyncnms,  especially  the  Polyncnins  scle  of  Hamilton's 
"  Fishes  of  the  Ganges,"  and  the  gol  or  gheriah  {Corvimis 
niger).  P.  scle  is  supposed  by  Royle  to  be  a  variety  of 
P.  lineatus,  which  is  said  to  be  common  on  all  the  shores 
to  the  eastward.  A  larger  species,  P.  tetradaclylus,  Shaw, 
is  also  believed  to  furnish  some  of  the  Indian  isinglass. 
Several  of  the  Siluridse  also  aff'ord  it  in  large  quantities,  espe- 
cially the  species  marked  Silnrns  raita  by  Dr.  Buchanan. 

The  kinds  of  fishes  from  which  this  useful  substance 
has  been  obtained  in  India  do  not  appear  in  all  instances 
to  have  been  correctly  defined,  for  it  has  been  suggested 
as  derived  from  some  which  are  destitute  of  air-vessels. 
Without  entering  too  minutely  into  the  subject,  it  may  be 
stated  that  along  the  western  coast,  and  down  Malabar,  the 
Siluroids  are  in  the  majority ;  but  wherever  large  rivers 
debouch  into  the  sea,  there  the  Polynemi  are  captured. 
As  we  advance  up  to  the  eastern  coast,  at  first  the  Acan- 
thopterygians  are  in  excess,  whilst  off  Masulipatam,  to  the 
north  again,  the  Polynemi  become  numerous,  especially  off 
the  Sunderbunds.  In  Burmah,  due  to  the  character  of 
the  water,  the  Siluroids  again  obtain  the  predominance. 
Amongst  the  isinglass-producing  Acanthopterygians,  the 
Polynemi  are  most  noted,  but  the  species  constituting  this 


The  Isinglass  of  Comma'ce.  245 

genus  are  peculiar,  in  having  filamentous  prolongations  at 
the  base  of  each  pectoral  fin  ;  these  are  remarkably  elon- 
gated in  Polyncmiis  paradiscns,  known  in  Bengal  as  the 
Tnpsi  inntcJu  or  mango-fish.  By  correctly  ascertaining 
the  number  of  these  prolongations  in  a  specimen,  a  decision 
may  be  arrived  at  whether  the  species  possesses  or  is  des- 
titute of  an  air-vessel ;  or,  in  short,  if  isinglass  can  or  cannot 
be  obtained  from  it. 

But  of  seven  species  at  present  recognized  in  the  seas  and 
estuaries  of  the  coasts  of  India,  merely  two  are  useful  for 
this  manufacture,  and  they  are  the  only  ones  which  have 
five  pectoral  appendages.  Consequently,  unless  a  large 
Polynemus  possesses  five  of  these  filamentous  appendages 
at  the  base  of  its  pectoral  fin,  it  will  be  useless  looking  for 
its  air-vessel  ;  it  has  none,  and  isinglass  cannot  be  pre- 
pared from  it.  When  dried,  the  air-vessel  is  tongue-shaped, 
as  are  also  those  of  others  of  the  Acanthopterygians  whose 
air-vessels  are  loose  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  have  no 
communicating  duct  leading  to  the  pharynx,  and  are  not 
attached  to  the  vertebrae.  If  we  examine  the  air-vessels  of 
the  Siluroid  or  scaleless  cat-fishes,  which  are  used  for  isin- 
glass, we  find  them  entirely  different.  They  are  like  short 
rounded  bags  with  an  open  mouth,  this  latter  being  where 
they  have  been  torn  away  from  their  adhesions  to  the 
vertebrae.  The  fishes  w^hich  furnish  these  descriptions  of 
air-vessels  are  mostly  found  in  muddy  waters,  estuaries, 
and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  but  do  not  thrive  where  the  sea  is 
clear.  The  Rita  ritoides,  C.  and  V.,  or  Pimclodus  rita,  H.  B., 
which  attains  a  great  size,  and  is  found  far  up  rivers,  is 
said  to  afford  this  substance  in  large  quantities. 

Dr.  McClelland  discovered,  about  the  year  1839,  that 
the  Chinese  had  been  importing  isinglass  from  India  in 
enormous  quantities,  and  from  immemorial   ages,  and   an 


246       The  Commci^cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

investigation  was  commenced  into  this  subject.  He  ascer- 
tained that  from  one  village,  six  miles  south-east  of  Calcutta, 
from  800  to  900  maunds  yearly,  valued  at  from  Rs.  25  to 
40  the  maund,  were  exported.  Lord  Auckland,  when 
governor-general,  sent  some  specimens  to  England  as  a 
new  export,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Royle,  gave  "  a  general 
view  of  Indian  fisheries,  and  the  propriety  of  attending 
more  extensively  to  the  curing  of  fish."  Dr.  Royle,  in  1842, 
in  a  pamphlet  "  on  the  production  of  isinglass  along  the 
coasts  of  India,"  gave  a  resume  of  what  had  been  previously 
accomplished,  as  well  as  some  very  interesting  figures  and 
experiments  on  the  value  of  this  article,  as  received  in 
London,  both  in  an  economic  and  financial  point  of  view. 
"  The  sounds,  when  received  fresh,  are  opened  and  stripped 
of  the  vascular  covering  and  internal  membrane,  washed, 
and  at  once  made  into  any  form  the  manufacturer  finds 
most  convenient  for  packing.  .  .  .  When  dry,  before  it 
reaches  the  manufacturer  (which  is  commonly  the  case,  the 
fish  being  caught  at  a  distance  towards  the  sea),  the  sound 
has  to  be  opened,  and  as  much  of  the  lining  membrane  as 
possible  removed  by  the  hand.  A  large  earthen  vessel  is 
then  filled  with  sounds,  and  water  poured  into  it,  and  the 
whole  covered  up  for  12  hours,  when  the  sounds  will  have 
been  brought  back  to  their  original  soft  state,  in  which  they 
may  be  as  perfectly  cleaned  as  if  they  had  been  obtained 
fresh."  It  seems  more  than  probable  that  this  will  account 
for  the  fishy  odour  of  this  isinglass,  as  the  sounds  should  be 
quite  fresh  when  prepared.  Dr.  McClelland  bleached  his 
specimens  in  alum  water  (one  ounce  to  four  or  five  gallons), 
soaking  them  a  short  time,  and,  when  saturated,  removing 
them  to  a  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  likewise  saturated  with 
alum  water.  In  this  they  were  tightly  rolled  up  and  set 
aside  for   12  hours,  the  process  being  repeated  until  they 


The  Isinglass  of  Com7nerce.  247 

were  white.  Some  were  sprinkled  or  dusted  with  chalk,  in 
case  of  exposure  to  damp  in  their  homeward  voyage ;  it 
can  be  easily  rubbed  ofT.  At  Gwadur  the  air-vessels  were 
soaked  in  brine  before  being  dried  ;  but  elsewhere  they  are 
simply  removed  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  lining  membrane  of  the  air-vessel  of  the  stur- 
geon, as  already  noticed,  yields  the  best  isinglass,  but  it 
has  been  rejected  in  the  Indian  forms,  which  accounts  for 
its  more  fibrous  nature,  although  not  proving  that  this 
lining  portion  in  India  is  of  the  best.  East  Indian  isinglass 
has  some  positive  defects,  such  as  retaining  a  fishy  smell, 
besides  being  partially  insoluble,  perhaps  due  to  some  por- 
tions of  the  albuminous  membranes  remaining.  In  fact, 
it  requires  more  care  in  its  preparation,  which  should  be 
undertaken  whilst  it  is  quite  fresh  ;  and  greater  caution  is 
necessary  in  the  drying  process.  If  it  be  not  properly 
dried,  it  might  possibly  undergo  a  slight  change  or  de- 
composition, and  become  partially  converted  into  a  more 
insoluble  form  of  gelatine.  A  more  important  objection  is 
the  smell,  which,  however,  may  likewise,  to  some  extent,  be 
traced  to  the  preparation.  Care  should  be  taken  that  it  is 
not  contaminated  by  the  animal  fluid  of  the  fish,  for  then 
it  becomes  very  difficult  to  purify.  Likewise,  it  is  too 
thick,  which  may  be  obviated  by  beating  or  pressure,  as 
is  now  done  with  some  American  and  Brazilian  kinds. 
"  The  extra  labour  that  this  would  require,"  observes  Royle, 
"  could  be  profitably  saved  by  not  tearing  it  into  fibres,  in 
which  form  it  is  disapproved  of  in  the  market ;  but  it 
might  still  be  cut  or  rasped  into  a  state  fit  for  domestic 
use."  The  same  authority  likewise  states  that — "  It  is  pre- 
ferable, and  will  be  cheaper,  to  prepare  the  article  and  send 
it  as  sheet  isinglass,  that  is,  in  the  form  of  the  slit  sounds 
themselves,  or  their  purest  membrane,  washed,  cleaned,  and 


248       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

dried  in  the  best  maimer.  .  .  .  Isinglass  cut  into  threads 
is  unsuitable  for  the  English  market,  because  there  is  a 
great  prejudice  against  purchasing  wholesale,  things  in  a 
cut  and  powdered  state,  in  consequence  of  the  innumerable 
methods  adopted  for  falsifying  and  adulterating  almost 
every  drug." 

The  method  adopted  in  separating  isinglass  from  the 
fish-sounds  and  rendering  it  fit  for  market  in  India  is  as 
follows : — 

The  air-vessel  is  from  8  to  12  inches  long,  pointed  at 
each  end  like  a  double  nightcap,  hollow,  but  without  an 
opening.  It  is  merely  taken  out  of  the  fish  when  caught, 
and  thrown  aside  without  further  trouble  by  the  fishermen. 
It  is  at  first  soft  and  doughy  to  the  feel,  and  partially 
distended  with  air ;  but  in  time  it  becomes  collapsed  and 
hard  outside,  in  which  state  it  is  sold  to  the  Chinese. 

When  fresh  taken  from  the  fish,  it  is  covered  by  a  thin 
cobweb  of  small  blood-vessels,  which  are  easily  peeled  off, 
as  none  of  them  enter  the  substance  of  the  organ.  Where 
this  is  neglected  it  is  stained  and  spotted  with  blood,  and 
the  whole  becomes  hard  and  consolidated  together,  or  the 
vascular  membrane  itself  becomes  putrid  in  places. 

Hence  the  vascular  membrane  should  always  be  care- 
fully peeled  off  the  first  thing  by  the  fishermen,  when  the 
outside  will  present  an  appearance  like  white  satin,  of  a 
fine,  oblique  fibrous  texture.  The  edge  should  now  be 
slit  open,  and  the  same  kind  of  bloody  cobweb  peeled  from 
within.  The  inner  side  will  then  present  the  same  white- 
satin  appearance  as  the  outside,  but,  if  attentively  ex- 
amined, Avill  be  seen  to  consist  of  transverse  instead  of 
oblique  fibres.  If  it  be  allowed  to  dry,  the  whole  becomes 
hard,  horny,  and  partially  transparent. 

The  thickness   of  the  organ   is  about  one-third  of  an 


The  Isinglass  of  Conmterce.  249 

inch,  and  the  best  way  to  see  its  fibrous  structure  is  to  tear 
it  across  when  it  is  dry.  In  this  way  it  sphts  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  transverse  fibre,  of  which  nine-tenths  of  its  sub- 
stance consists,  the  obHque  fibre  forming  merely  a  thin 
coat  outside.  If  the  mechanical  division  of  the  transverse 
fibre  be  thus  continued,  the  outer  oblique  coat  becomes 
readily  detached,  and  falls  off  in  plates  and  scales  from  the 
outside.  Thus,  by  mechanical  means  the  organ  may  be 
separated  into  two  very  distinct  parts — the  first,  or  trans- 
verse fibre,  consisting  of  perfectly  pure  gelatine,  comprising 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  ;  the  second,  or  oblique 
fibre,  falls  off"  in  broad  plates,  consisting  of  albumen,  thus 
leaving  the  gelatine  or  isinglass  perfectly  pure. 

When  cut  open,  cleaned,  and  dried  as  above,  the  suleah- 
sound  weighs  from  12  to  16  ounces,  from  which  90  per  cent, 
of  pure  isinglass  may  be  separated  by  mechanical  means. 

The  fish  being  caught  at  a  distance  from  Bombay  and 
Calcutta,  the  sounds  are  usually  sold  unopened  and  un- 
cleaned,  as  taken  from  the  fish,  with  the  cobweb  of  blood- 
vessels hardened  and  dried  upon  the  surface,  which  is 
frequently  stained  with  blood. 

In  this  state  it  requires  to  be  soaked  for  12  hours  in 
water  to  overcome  the  horny  consistence,  so  far  as  to  be 
able  to  cut  it  open.  The  outer  rind,  being  insoluble,  is  that 
on  which  soaking  makes  the  least  impression  ;  so  that 
when  opened  we  frequently  find  much  of  the  pure  isinglass 
within  dissolved  ;  and  if  continued  soaking  and  washing  be 
practised  after  it  is  opened,  with  a  view  to  soften  and 
cleanse  the  outer  insoluble  rind,  the  article  may  become 
greatly  impoverished  and  deteriorated  from  the  solution  of 
the  inner  parts,  which  thus  become  dissolved  and  washed 
away  incautiously  during  the  operation. 

To   obviate   this   it   is   only   necessary   to   induce   the 


250       The  Commercial  Pi^oduds  of  the  Sea. 

fishermen  to  open  the  sounds  at  once  when  taken  from  the 
fish,  and  strip  them  of  their  cobweb,  when  they  should 
merely  be  rinsed  with  a  little  fresh  water  and  dried  in  the 
sun  ;  after  which  the  longer  they  are. kept  exposed  to  dry 
in  the  air,  the  better. 

Brazilian  Isinglass. — One  or  other  of  the  siluroid  fishes 
common  in  Guiana  probably  yields  the  Brazilian  isinglass, 
which  comes  chiefly  in  the  form  of  lump  or  pipe. 

The  fish  which  produce  this  article  are  caught  annually 
in  great  quantities  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  The 
isinglass  is  almost  all  sent  to  Great  Britain.  The  fish 
caught  in  the  rivers  are  not  of  first-rate  quality.  Great 
quantities  of  piracuru  ( Vastris  gigas),  highly  esteemed  by 
the  natives,  are  taken  on  the  Upper  Amazon,  and  sent  to 
the  Para  market. 

A  machorian,  which  gives  22  lbs.  of  salted  or  dried  fish, 
produces  about  i  lb.  ij  oz.  of  isinglass.  Thus,  the  weight 
of  the  isinglass  is  to  the  fish  as  i  to  20,  a  rule  found  to 
be  pretty  general.  According  to  the  estimated  take  of  fish, 
the  yield  of  isinglass  should  be  123,480  lbs. 

Supposing  the  price  of  isinglass  to  be  but  2s.  6d.  the 
pound  (at  Para  it  is  45".  and  sometimes  5^-.),  and  the  price 
of  salt  fish  a  penny  per  pound,  we  have  the  following  as  the 
produce  of  the  local  fishery  : — 

Isinglass,  123,480  lbs.  at  2s.  bd.  ...    ;^i 5,435 

Salt  fish,  2,346,120  lbs.,  at  id.  ...         9,801 


;^25,236 


From  750  to  880  cwt.  of  isinglass  are  shipped  from 
Brazil  annually,  of  the  value  of  ;^  15,000  to  ;^i6,ooo. 

In  the  Cape  Colony  some  of  the  wine  merchants  make 
use  of  the  dried  bladder  of  the  kabeljauw  {Scicena  hololepi- 
dota,  Guv.  and  Val.)  instead  of  isinglass. 


The  Isinglass  of  Commei^ce.  251 

West  Indian  Isinglass. — Under  this  name  the  isinglass 
obtained  in  British  and  French  Guiana  enters  into  com- 
merce. It  is  the  produce  of  one  or  two  siluroid  fishes.  In 
British  Guiana  it  appears  to  be  obtained  from  the  gilbackre 
or  gilbagre  {Silurus  Parkcrii),  a  fish  very  abundant  in  the 
estuaries  of  the  rivers  of  the  colony.  A  small  quantity  of 
this  fish-glue,  as  it  is  termed,  is  now  exported  from  thence. 

In  French  Guiana  some  attention  has  also  been  given 
to  the  preparation  of  isinglass  obtained  from  the  machorian 
{Silurus  felis),  which  is  especially  employed  in  the  clarifi- 
cation of  beer.  Reduced  into  small  shreds  by  the  action 
of  a  mechanical  plane,  it  dissolves  completely  in  cold 
water,  and  is  compared  with  Russian  isinglass  as  two 
to  three.  Its  cheapness  gives  it  also  advantages  over  the 
latter. 

North  American  Isinglass.  —  Cod-sounds,  which  are' 
brought  in  great  quantities  from  Newfoundland,  are  nothing 
more  than  the  salted  air-bladders  of  these  fishes.  The 
Iceland  fishermen,  as  well  as  those  of  America,  prepare 
isinglass  of  a  very  excellent  quality  from  cod-sounds, 
though  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  method  of  clarify- 
ing it  which  the  Russians  practise  in  preparing  that  article 
from  the  sound  of  the  sturgeon. 

Ribbon  isinglass  is  obtained  from  the  air-bladder  of 
the  common  hake  {Mcrlucius  vulgaris),  or  probably  from 
the  fish  passing  under  the  name  of  hake  on  the  coasts 
of  America  {Phycis  chuss).  The  air-bladder  is  thrown 
into  water  to  macerate  for  a  little  while,  and  taken  out 
and  pressed  between  two  iron  rollers,  by  which  it  is  elon- 
gated to  the  extent  of  half  a  yard  and  more.  It  is  then 
carefully  dried,  packed,  and  sent  to  market. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ribbon  isinglass  from  fish-sounds 
it    is    customary   to    place    the    softened    and    moist    or 


252       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

macerated  sounds  between  feed  and  compressing  rollers,  by 
which  the  viscid  substance  is  compressed  and  joined,  and 
formed  into  a  continuous  sheet.  Notwithstanding  the  con- 
stant injection  of  cold  water  into  the  rolls,  the  substance 
adheres  tenaciously  to  the  roll,  accumulates  thereupon,  and 
has  to  be  cut  away ;  so  that  the  operation  is  slow  and 
laborious,  and  productive  of  imperfect  sheets. 

Mr.  James  Manning,  of  Rockport,  Massachusetts,  has 
invented  an  improvement,  designed  to  so  strip  the  gela- 
tinous substance  from  the  rolls  that  the  work  may  proceed 
continuously,  the  ribbon,  as  it  is  stopped,  being  again  fed 
or  guided  by  the  operator  into  and  between  the  rolls  until 
sufficiently  reduced  or  elongated  for  removal,  or,  for  the 
action  of  other  rolls,  set  nearer  together  to  produce  a 
thinner  ribbon.  He  effects  this  result  by  placing  at  the 
side  of  each  roll  a  scraper  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  roll,  having  an  edge  set  up  to  the  roll,  so  that  the  roll 
shall  run  just  clear  of  it,  w^iich  scraper  or  cleaner  strips 
from  the  whole  surface  of  the  roll  the  adhering  gelatine  in 
the  form  of  a  sheet. 

Knowing  that  the  sturgeon  abounded  in  the  North 
American  rivers,  and  struck  by  the  absence  of  isinglass 
from  that  quarter,  in  185 1  Professor  Owen  drew  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Canadian  Commissioner  to  the  fact,  and  now  a 
commerce  has  sprung  up  for  this  valuable  product,  which, 
previous  to  the  first  London  Exhibition,  had  been  rejected 
among  the  useless  entrails  of  the  sturgeon.  Now  some 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  air- 
bladder  and  the  outer  tunic  of  the  alimentary  canal,  after 
the  modes  of  obtaining  the  best  Russian  isinglass. 

The  sturgeon  enters  the  rivers  of  North  America,  such 
as  the  Potomac,  Delaware,  Hudson,  and  Kennebec,  in 
numberless   quantities,    like   the   shad    and   herring ;    but 


The  Isinglass  of  Commerce.  253 

very  little  use  is  made  of  it.  From  Virginia  up  to  the 
highest  habitable  northern  latitudes,  they  ascend  the  rivers 
300  to  500  miles  up.  From  30,000  to  40,000  sturgeons 
might  be  caught  annually  in  the  before-named  rivers,  and 
without  counting  the  rivers  farther  north  of  Maine,  the 
annual  export  of  pickled  sturgeon,  caviare,  and  isinglass 
alone  would  be  worth  500,000  dollars.  The  sturgeon  is  not, 
however,  much  esteemed  in  America ;  it  brings  scarcely 
twopence  a  pound  in  the  market,  and  the  roe  and  swim- 
ming-bladder are  always  thrown  away.  There  are  two 
species  of  sturgeon  which  frequent  the  American  rivers — 
the  round-nosed  {Accipenser  rubicundus),  which  is  gene- 
rally eight  feet  or  more  long,  and  weighs  over  200  lbs. ; 
and  the  sharp  or  shovel  nosed  {ScaphirJiyncus  platyrJiyn- 
cus),  which  is  seldom  more  than  five  feet  long,  and 
weighs  about  150  lbs.  or  more.  In  Russia  some  are  found 
which  weigh  500  lbs.,  and  in  Norway  one  was  caught 
which  weighed  looo  lbs. 

In  the  Hudson  river  thousands  are  captured  annually 
— a  number  of  persons  making  this  their  sole  business. 
Immense  nets  are  cast;  but  instead  of  hauling  them  entire, 
their  floats  are  watched,  and  when  one  goes  down  a  stur- 
geon is  calculated  on.  The  net  is  drawn  at  that  point, 
his  sturgeonship  is  hauled  into  a  "scow,"  and  the  net  is 
dropped  again  for  a  fresh  victim.  Inshore  the  fishermen 
have  pens  where  the  fish  are  kept  for  market.  Lots  of 
them  go  to  Albany,  where  they  are  considered  "  tit-bits." 
Thousands  of  them  are  cut  up  and  tried  for  the  oil  which 
they  yield  in  abundance. 

Chinese  Isinglass. — Isinglass  or  fish-glue  is  very  exten- 
sively employed  in  China  for  a  great  number  of  purposes. 
This  substance,  which  is  obtained  in  Europe  by  treating 
principally  the  swimming-bladder  of  the  sturgeon,  is  made 


254       "^^^^  Cotiimeycial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

in  China  in  another  manner.  There  we  meet  in  commerce 
with  plates  of  a  horny  appearance,  whitish,  and  of  a  tissue 
resembling  animal  membrane.  These  plates  are  of  dif- 
ferent forms,  and  bear  in  China  the  name  of  jn-ka.  This 
substance,  dissolved  in  water,  forms  a  glue  of  an  excellent 
quality,  which  is  specially  employed  by  cabinet-makers, 
furniture  being  an  industry  for  which  Ningpo  is  justly 
renowned.  This  glue  has  properties  much  resembling 
gelatine.  Like  gelatine,  it  is  very  nitrogenous,  furnishing 
by  distillation  ammoniacal  compounds  and  a  bulky  char- 
coal. This,  incinerated,  gives  a  whitish  ash,  composed 
probably  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

In  an  industrial  point  of  view  it  differs  from  isinglass 
by  furnishing  a  glue  of  very  considerable  resistance.  That 
of  the  best  quality  is  reserved  for  the  manufacture  of 
furniture  of  the  highest  class,  and  is  employed  to  unite 
pieces  of  wood  which  are  required  to  resist  great  strain. 
Besides  its  industrial  uses,  this  fish-glue  is  highly  esteemed 
for  food  purposes  by  the  Chinese. 

The  three  kinds  of  fish  chiefly  used  for  obtaining 
isinglass  in  China  are  : — i.  The  My-yu  {Scicena  litcidd), 
having  greyish  scales  ;  2.  Ta-houang-yu  {Otolit/nts  niacu- 
latus),  the  head,  fins,  etc.,  of  which  are  of  a  bright  yellow  ; 
3.  Mung-pu  {Angnilla  {Miirccnd)  pekinensis,  Basilewski). 
To  obtain  the  swimming-bladder  the  gills  are  removed, 
and  by  introducing  the  finger  into  the  interior  the  air- 
bladder  is  obtained.  The  intestinal  and  membranous  parts 
which  surround  this  organ  are  separated,  and  with  a  knife 
it  is  split  longitudinally  ;  the  two  lips  are  lifted,  and  a 
whitish  membrane,  which  is  found  on  each  side,  is  taken 
out.  In  this  state  it  is  sold  for  food  purposes.  It  is  boiled 
a  certain  time  in  water,  but  does  not  dissolve,  forming  only 
a  gelatinous  mass  of  an  insipid   flavour.     With  the  third- 


The  Isinglass  of  Commerce.  255 

named  fish,  of  the  eel  species,  the  belly  is  opened,  and  the 
organ,  which  is  often  of  great  size,  removed. 

The  glue  which  is  made  is  of  excellent  quality,  but 
often  yellow  or  grey  tinted,  according  to  the  inferior  quality 
of  the  substance  employed.  It  is  thus  prepared  : — The 
ju-ka  is  washed  in  water  for  about  two  hours,  then  taken 
out  and  placed  in  a  water-bath  for  a  certain  time.  When, 
by  the  touch,  it  is  found  to  be  soft,  it  is  removed  and 
beaten  with  a  heavy  iron  hammer.  This  is  said  to  be 
a  delicate  operation,  which  should  be  done  at  the  proper 
time.  The  substance  is  then  flattened  and  rolled  by  the 
hand,  and  horizontal  incisions  are  made,  so  that  the  air 
may  more  readily  reach  it  and  the  drying  be  more  rapid. 
When  the  glue  is  to  be  used,  it  is  broken  in  pieces,  put 
in  a  water-bath,  with  a  little  water  to  dissolve  it. 

It  is  probable  if  the  Chinese  isinglass  were  treated  with 
sulphurous  acid,  a  better  commercial  product  might  be 
obtained. 

Besides  its  use  for  food  purposes  in  China,  isinglass  is 
employed  medicinally.  That  which  is  very  transparent  is 
most  esteemed.  It  is  usually  met  with  in  long,  channelled 
pieces,  transparent,  of  a  dull  yellow  colour.  Gelatine  is 
often  substituted  for  it,  which  is  in  long,  opaque  tablets, 
of  a  deep  brown,  and  is  made  from  the  skins  of  different 
animals. 

From  the  ports  of  Hiogo  and  Osaka,  in  Japan,  the 
exports  of  isinglass  to  Shanghai  and  Hongkong  were  in — 


Piculs. 

Value. 

1874     ... 

...        2286        ... 

...         ?75.2I2 

1875 

...        6238        ... 

198,416 

In  many  of  the  French  colonies  it  is  stated  that  large 
quantities  of  valuable  isinglass  are  lost  to  commerce  from 
carelessness  and  ignorance.     At  Senegal  and  at  Mahe  the 


256       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

swimming-bladders  are  thrown  away  with  the  entrails.  At 
Newfoundland  they  form  part  of  the  food  of  the  seamen, 
and  a  few  barrels  are  sent  to  France.  From  Cochin  China 
a  small  quantity  is  shipped  to  China.  From  Cayenne 
9774  lbs.,  valued  at  £1066,  were  shipped  in  1874.  The 
average  annual  imports  of  isinglass  into  China  were,  in 
the  five  years  ending  1870,  2953  piculs  of  133  lbs.,  and  in 
the  five  years  ending  1875,  3934  piculs. 

Fish-AIaivs  are  the  swimming-bladders  or  sounds  of 
different  fish,  extracted  and  merely  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
considered  a  great  luxury  by  the  Chinese,  as  possessing 
strengthening  properties.  They  are  extensively  collected 
on  the  Malabar  coast  and  shipped  to  Bombay,  from 
whence  large  quantities  are  re-exported,  principally  to 
China  and   the   Straits    Settlements. 

In  the  official  year  ending  1872,  9008  cwts.  of  fish- 
maws  and  sharks*  fins,  valued  at  ;^30,ioo,  were  exported 
from  Bombay.  From  Penang  2277  piculs  were  shipped 
in  1870,  and  from  Singapore  125,946  cwt.,  valued  at;^i3,7i7. 
They  often  fetch  as  much  as  ;^I4  the  cwt.  in  the  Canton 
market. 


I 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OTHER   FISH   PRODUCTS  AND   THEIR   USES, 

Miscellaneous  uses  of  parts  of  fishes — Scales  of  fish — Articles  made  from  them — 
Skin  of  fishes  ;  applications  of  it— Shark  skin — Ray  skins — Shagreen  and 
galuchat — Fish  flour — Fish  paste — Guanine,  or  pearl  essence. 

Some  of  the  miscellaneous  uses  of  parts  of  fish  are  curious. 
Thus,  the  serrated  spine  of  the  ray  fish  is  used  by  the 
Indians  of  the  Amazon  to  arm  their  arrows.  In  India  the 
jawbone  of  the  boalee  fish  {Silurus  boalis)  is  employed  by 
the  natives  about  Dacca.  The  teeth  being  small,  recurved, 
and  closely  set,  act  as  a  fine  comb  for  carding  cotton,  in 
removing  the  loose  and  coarse  fibres  and  all  extraneous 
matters  irom  the  cotton  wool.  Sharks'  teeth  are  used  in 
arming  weapons,  and  the  teeth  of  sharks  and  other  fish 
as  trinkets.  The  jaws  of  the  sleeper  shark  {Soimtiosus 
brevipinnd)  are  used  for  head-dresses  by  the  North 
American  Indians.  Fish  bones  are  used  by  Indians  and 
Eskimo  in  making  implements  ;  sharks'  vertebrae  for  canes ; 
the  bones  of  the  whale  for  weapons.  Those  of  sharks  and 
skates  are  used  in  Japan  in  making  imitation  tortoise-shell. 
Among  the  islands  of  the  Corean  Archipelago,  the  children 
use  the  dried  spiral  eggs  of  a  species  of  skate  or  some  other 
cartilaginous  fish  as  rattles,  having  first  introduced  a  few 
small  pebbles  to  assist  in  making  a  noise. 
12 


258       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Scales  of  fish  are  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  mem- 
branous laminae  and  phosphate  of  lime,  to  which  they  owe 
their  brilliancy.  Perhaps  the  enamel  or  nacreous  covering 
of  the  scales  of  fish  generally  is  capable  of  being  employed 
more  largely  in  the  arts  ;  it  appears  to  be  sid  generis,  and 
seems  hitherto  to  have  escaped  the  scrutiny  of  organic 
chemistry. 

At  the  Vienna  International  Exhibition,  the  scales  of 
the  captain  fish  {Heterotis),  from  Senegal,  were  shown,  for 
making  fish-glue  to  stiffen  and  glaze  ribands. 

The  Royal  University  of  Norway,  Christiana,  sent  to 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  in  1875,  a  diadem 
made  from  fish  scales  and  eyes  ;  and  at  the  Paris  Inter- 
national Exhibition  of  1878  two  Swedish  exhibitors  showed 
flowers  and  ornaments  made  of  fish  scales. 

Panircs  and  ornaments  for  ladies,  made  of  fish  scales, 
were  at  one  time  largely  sold  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
London. 

At  Newark,  in  the  United  States,  large  fish  scales  have 
been  for  some  time  industrially  employed.  The  fresh  scales 
are  steeped  for  24  hours  in  a  solution  of  marine  salt  in  order 
to  clean  them.  They  then  undergo  five  or  six  washings  in 
distilled  water,  which  is  renewed  every  two  or  three  hours. 
Each  scale  is  then  separately  dried  with  a  clean  cloth,  and 
lightly  pressed  and  left  to  dry.  Finally,  they  are  macerated 
for  an  hour  in  alcohol,  and  rubbed  dry.  They  then 
appear  like  mother-of-pearl,  and  of  a  firm  and  elastic  con- 
sistence. They  are  worked  up  either  plain  or  coloured,  for 
making  artificial  flowers,  marquetry  articles,  and  other  fancy 
work.  The  Chinese  have  a  mode  of  grinding  up  fish  scales 
and  using  the  powder  as  a  dry  pigment,  to  give  a  brilliancy 
to  parts  of  pictures. 

The  skin  of  fishes  is  chiefly  gelatinous,  and  is  easily 


Other  Fish  Products  and  their  Uses.        259 

soluble  in  water;  but  some  is  of  a  firmer,  stronger,  and 
more  useful  character. 

Although  the  skin  of  some  marine  mammals,  such  as 
those  of  the  seal,  walrus,  and  the  white  whale,  or  Beluga 
(known  as  porpoise  leather),  have  long  been  commercially- 
employed,  it  is  only  lately  that  attention  has  been  more 
generally  directed  to  the  utilization  of  fish  skins  on  an 
extended  scale.  Their  employment  hitherto  has  been  very 
limited.  Eel  skins  have  been  used  for  the  thongs  of  whips 
and  the  attachments  of  flails,  dried  sole  skins  to  clarify 
coffee,  and  some  shark  and  ray  skins  by  workmen  to 
smooth  and  polish  substances,  and  also  to  make  a  kind  of 
shagreen  leather. 

At  the  Maritime  Exhibition,  held  at  the  Westminster 
Aquarium  in  1876,  Mr.  G.  Kent,  of  Christiana,  Norway, 
exhibited  a  variety  of  tanned  skins,  among  which  were  : — 

Whale  skins  tanned  ;  the  size  ranging  from  12  inches 
broad  by  60  feet  in  length,  suitable  for  wheel  bands,  for 
driving  machinery,  etc. 

White  fish,  for  upper  leather,  which  can  be  prepared  in 
pieces  of  12  feet  by  4  feet. 

Skins  of  various  flat-fish,  dressed  and  prepared  for 
gloves.  Fine  upper  leather  can  be  made  with  it,  often  to 
be  had  in  sizes  up  to  three  feet  square. 

Skins  of  soles,  dressed  and  tanned  suitable  for  purses,  etc. 

Skins  of  thornbacks,  suitable  for  cabinet-makers  instead 
of  sand-paper,  and  very  much  more  durable. 

Skins  of  eels,  dressed  and  dyed  suitable  for  braces  and 
other  purposes. 

Mention  is  made  of  an  industry  carried  on  at  Colborn, 
in  Canada,  with  the  skins  of  species  of  Siluroids  for  glove- 
making,  and  this  is  to  be  prosecuted  on  a  larger  scale,  both 
for  the  flesh  for  salting  and  the  skin  for  currying. 


26o      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Shoes  have  been   made   in  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
from  the  skins  of  the  cusk  or  torsk  {Brosmns  vulgaris),  the 
use  of  which  has  been  patented.     If  this  material  for  shoes 
proves  what  it  promises,  it  will  open  up  a  new  market  for 
fish  skins,  which  will   no  doubt   be    highly  profitable.     In 
Egypt  fish  skins  from  the  Red  Sea  are  used  for  soles  of  shoes. 
In  the  Animal  Products  Collection  at  the  Bethnal-green 
Museum,  there  are  some  tanned  sole  skins  shown.     The 
skin   of   the    losh    or   burbot    {Lota    maculata),   cleansed, 
stretched,  and  dried,  is  used  by  the  country  people  in  many 
parts   of   Russia   and    Siberia    to   trim  their  dresses,  and 
instead  of  glass  for  the  windows  of  their  dwellings,  being  as 
transparent  as  oiled  paper.     It  is  also  utilized  by  some  of 
the  Tartar  tribes,  as  material  for  their  summer  dresses,  and 
the  bags    in    which    they  pack  their    animal   skins.      The 
inhabitants   of  the   eastern   coasts  of  the  middle  of  Asia 
clothe  themselves  with  the  tanned  skins  of  the  salmon.     It 
is  asserted  that  it  makes  a  leather  as  tough  as  wash-leather. 
The  scale-rnarks  give  a  very  neat  pattern  to  the  leather. 

W.  Brozowsky,  in  his  "  Waarenkunde,"  Vienna,  1869, 
under  "  Fish  Skin,"  says  this  is  obtained  from  the  sea-angel 
(Squatus  squatma,  Lin. ;  Squatina  Icevis,  Cuv.),  the  thorny 
shark  {Squaliis  acanthias,  S.  carcharias),  the  tigered  shark 
[S.  caniculata),  and  some  skates,  as  the  angel  skate  {Raja 
rhinobatis),  R.  Scphen,  etc.  The  skins  of  these  skates  and 
sharks  have  spines  of  different  sizes  instead  of  scales.  The 
skins  are  used  for  polishing,  and,  after  the  star-formed 
spines  have  been  smoothed  down  with  sandstone,  for  cover- 
ing boxes  and  cases,  etc. 

Guibourt  (sixth  edition,  by  Dr.  G.  Planchon,  1870-71. 
vol,  iv.),  says  the  sephen  of  the  Red  and  Indian  Seas, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Trygon,  produces  the  tuberculous 
and  hard  skin  called  galuchat,  after  the  name  of  a  Paris 


Other  Fish  Products  and  their  Uses.        261 

workman  who  employed  it  first.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Selacians,  viz.,  the  rousettes,  sharks,  humantins,  aiguillats, 
leiches,  etc.,  have  a  rough  skin,  which  is  used  for  covering 
boxes,  and  also  for  polishing  wood.  The  greatest  con- 
fusion exists  among  merchants  as  to  the  names  given  to 
the  different  skins.  Each  tradesman  applies,  according  to 
his  fancy,  the  name  oi pcan  de  rcqtiin,  peau  dii  diien  de  mer, 
chagrin,  and  even  galnchat.  From  specimens  of  the  various 
skins,  the  following  would  seem  to  be  the  species  utilized  : — 

1.  Shark  skin,  from  a  young  shark  ;  small,  imbricated 
scales,  somewhat  translucid,  with  longitudinal  lines,  the 
border  or  edge  entire  and  circular.  This  edge  is  free  on 
the  body,  but  attached  on  the  fins.  This  skin  serves  for 
covering  cases,  etc.,  but  is  not  rough  enough  for  polishing. 

2.  Skin  of  mottled  rousette  {Scyllittin,  Cuv.).  Tuber- 
culous, imbricated,  horny,  fine  and  hard  scales,  very  near 
one  to  the  other,  and  transparent,  each  triangular.  Skin 
much  used  for  polishing.  Some  persons  state  that  "  false 
galuchat "  is  made  of  it  by  rubbing  off  the  scales,  which 
leaves  a  square  figure  that  becomes  very  showy  when  the 
skin  is  applied  on  a  green  paper.  "  I  rather  believe,"  con- 
tinues M.  Guibourt,  "  that  the  false  galuchat  is  made  with 
the  skin  of  the  aiguillat." 

3.  Pcau  de  leiche  {Scymmis),  sold  to  cabinet-makers 
under  the  name  of  pcau  de  chien  de  incr,  is  covered  with 
nearly  rhomboid,  tuberculous,  semi-transparent  scales, 
arranged  one  near  the  other  in  quincunxes. 

4.  Pcau  d'aiguillat  {Spinax  acantJiias,  Cuv.). — Viewed 
with  a  magnifying  glass,  this  skin  appears  covered  with 
small  square  opaline  scales,  not  rough  like  the  preceding, 
but  much  used  by  the  gainiers  or  sheath-makers,  for  its 
glossy  nacreous  aspect. 

5.  Peau  de  sagri  {Spinax  Jiiger,  Cuv.).    Same  uses  as  the 


262       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

preceding.  The  word  sagri  is  Persian  ;  saghcr,  Turkish, 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  dressed  leather  made  from  the 
mule  and  ass,  whence  our  word  shagreen. 

6.  Galuchat  or  SepJien  skin,  from  the  back  of  the  Hypo- 
lopJms  Sephen  and  Trygon  ScpJien,  Cloq.  It  has  numerous 
round  tubercles,  which  become  white  by  rubbing  down,  and 
in  the  interior  opaque  and  nacreous.  The  skin  is  some- 
times dyed  different  colours,  but  it  is  often  preferable  to 
leave  it  the  natural  colour  by  only  half  polishing  it. 

The  quantity  of  ray  skins,  dried  or  salted,  imported 
into  France  in  1863  was  about  18,000  lbs.  weight,  prin- 
cipally from  Portugal.  Formerly  they  used  to  fetch  as 
high  as  seven  francs  the  pound  ;  now  they  may  be  had  for 
\s.  a  pound. 

The  best  galuchat,  or  what  we  should  call  shagreen, 
is  made  from  the  skin  of  the  sephen,  which  abounds  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  is  also  met  with  in  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  skin  is  remarkable  for 
the  size  of  the  osseous  protuberances.  There  are,  however, 
two  kinds  of  these  rays,  one  with  rough  skin  and  the  other 
with  smooth. 

From  a  certain  portion  of  the  skin  of  the  angel  shark 
{Squatina  angcliis)  the  Turks  make  the  most  beautiful 
sea-green  watch-cases.  These  sharks,  which  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  genera  of  rays  and  sharks,  are 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  principally,  and  the  German 
Ocean  sometimes.  The  skin,  being  very  rough,  is  em- 
ployed to  polish  wood  and  ivory,  as  well  as  for  other  uses 
in  the  arts. 

Turners,  ebonists,  and  carpenters  in  Europe  use  the 
rough  skin  of  the  blue  dog-fish  iSqualus  glaucus,  Lin.) 
like  emery  paper,  for  smoothing  their  work  and  preparing 
it   for   polishing.      This   shark   skin  is   also   used  by  the 


Other  Fish  Products  and  their  Uses.        263 

native  workmen  of  the  East  for  polishing  wood  and 
ivory,  and  it  is  made  into  shagreen.  That  most  used 
now  seems  to  be  the  skin  of  the  ray  {Hypolophus  Sephen), 
which  is  very  common  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  an 
extensive  commerce  is  now  carried  on  in  them  in  the 
Indian  Ocean ;  they  are  found  in  the  Sea  of  Oman,  and 
also  taken  at  Mahe.  The  house  of  Giraudon,  i,  Rue  de 
Hasard  Richelieu,  Paris,  makes  excellent  use  of  them  for 
morocco  and  tablctterie.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1878, 
this  firm  exhibited  two  cases  with  numerous  illustrations 
of  the  ornamental  application  of  the  prepared  skin  in  large 
office-table  inkstands,  candlesticks,  boxes  and  caskets, 
paper  knives,  reticules,  card-cases,  frames  for  photographs, 
bracelets,  scent-bottles,  etc.  The  long  tail  is  also  used  for 
canes  and  penholders. 

Pcau  de  rousette  {Squalus  catidiis  and  caniculus,  Lin.). 
This  fish,  called  cJiat  at  Marseilles,  and  criii  in  Catalonia, 
is  smaller  than  the  angel  fish.  The  skin,  reddish  and 
without  spots,  is  of  a  uniform  grain,  flat,  and  only  used  to 
make  cases  and  other  articles  known  as  shagreen.  These 
skins  come  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  are  imported 
in  bundles  by  the  sailors,  selling  at  from  30^-.  to  36^-.  the 
dozen,  according  to  size. 

Peaii  de  cJiieu  de  iner  is  another  name  given  in  France 
to  some  species  of  Squalus  or  requin.  That  usually  found 
on  the  French  coasts  is  known  under  the  names  of  chie7i 
marin,  chat  inarin,  rousette  tigre'e  (Squalus  catulus,  Lin.). 
Turners,  cabinet-makers,  and  carpenters  use  the  skin  for 
scraping  and  smoothing  their  work  before  polishing;  metal- 
workers and  others  also  employ  it.  This  skin,  when  worked 
up  with  the  tubercules  with  which  it  is  studded,  takes 
the  name  of  galuchat,  and  is  ordinarily  dyed  green,  to 
cover  cases,  sheaths,   and   boxes.       Under   the   name   of 


264      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

chagrm  these  skins  used  to  be  much  employed  in  Turkey, 
Syria,  Tunis,  and  TripoH.  That  made  in  Constantinople 
was  considered  the  best.  It  was  coloured  black,  green, 
white,  and  red. 

Fish  Products. — The  ingenuity  of  the  Norwegians  has 
discovered  a  hundred  ways  of  pleasing  the  palate  of  the 
home  consumer,  and  increasing  the  export  of  articles 
derived  from  the  sea.  Preserved  fish  and  portions  of  fish, 
such  as  roes  and  sounds,  salmon  and  lobster  patties,  or 
rather  pasties  or  pates  — for  the  first  word  gives  an  idea  of 
something  small,  whereas  these  and  other  pates  well  known 
on  the  Continent  resemble  in  size  the  famous  venison 
pasties  of  the  olden  time  in  England,  and  are  often  a  yard 
or  more  in  length — preserved  mussels,  lobsters,  prawns, 
and  a  dozen  other  articles,  make  up  altogether  a  very  con- 
siderable trade.  Amongst  the  most  peculiar  preparations 
of  Norway,  hov/ever,  are  the  fish  flours — farines  de poisson, 
as  they  are  called.  They  are  composed  of  the  flesh  of  fish 
reduced  to  powder,  with  some  additional  substances,  and 
the  biscuits  made  from  these  flours  are  said  by  certain 
chemists  to  contain  four  times  the  nutritive  matter  of  beef, 
and  16  times  that  of  milk  or  rye  bread.  The  farine  de 
poisson  is  also  used  in  place  of  rice  and  potatoes  ;  and  the 
dishes  prepared  from  it  are  served  at  Norwegian  tables 
with  poultry,  and  are  said  to  be  very  palatable. 

Hard,  horny  pieces  of  dried  bonito,  called  cuminelnmms, 
are  rasped  over  their  rice  by  the  Hindoos.  Dried  loaves  o( 
putrid  pounded  fish  are  eaten  in  Africa  and  South  America. 

Fisli  paste. — A  peculiar  preparation,  called  by  the 
Malays  balachong  and  by  the  Javanese  trasi,  is  a  fcetid 
mass,  composed  chiefly  of  pounded  or  bruised  fish  and 
shrimps ;  this  is  fermented  and  dried  in  the  sun.  It  is 
largely  consumed  as  a  condiment  to  rice  in  all  the  countries 


Other  Fish  Products  and  their  Uses.        265 

to  the  east  of  Bengal,  including  the  southern  provinces  of 
China  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Its 
distribution  giv^es  rise  to  an  extensive  internal  traffic,  and, 
like  the  herrings  and  salt  fish  with  the  negro  population  of 
the  West  Indies,  it  forms  to  the  natives  a  palatable  addition 
to  their  ordinary  food. 

There  is  carried  on,  on  the  coasts  of  Cochin  China,  a 
considerable  fishery  for  the  preparation  of  a  condiment  or 
fish  sauce,  which  is  alleged  to  have  very  hygienic  proper- 
ties. It  is  there  called  "  Nuoc-mam,"  and  is  made  with 
shrimps  and  small  fish  which  swarm  on  the  banks  of  the 
coast  during  the  months  of  May  to  August ;  these  are 
slowly  decomposed  in  salt.  The  most  esteemed  kinds  are 
those  of  Tonkin  and  Phu-quoc.  Of  this  sauce  there  are 
consumed  in  the  six  French  provinces  about  8,000,000 
jars,  valued  at  2,000,000  francs  (;^ 80,000).  This  condi- 
ment is  brought  to  perfection  by  being  buried  in  the  earth 
for  several  years.  There  is  also  made  a  fluid  sauce,  which 
is  equal  to  the  best  anchovy.  Nuoc-mani  is  an  article  of 
great  necessity  to  the  Annamites,  who  live  in  the  midst  of 
marshes,  where  the  water  is  bad,  and  who  neither  drink 
wine  nor  spirits.  Many  of  the  French  officers  attribute  the 
good  health  they  enjoy  while  in  Cochin  China  to  the  use 
of  this  fish  paste. 

A  kind  of  pickle,  called  garum,  is  prepared  in  some 
countries  of  the  East,  of  fish  half  putrified  and  strongly 
salted,  with  the  addition  of  aromatics.  Several  species 
of  garum  were  used  by  the  Romans,  which  were  made 
from  the  mackerel  and  the  bonito. 

The  swimming-bladder  of  Argentina  sphyrcBna,  Lin., 
inhabiting  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  abounds  in  the  silvery 
substance  so  remarkable  in  fishes,  and  is  employed  to  form 
imitation  pearls. 


266       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  perfectly  white  solution  of  the  scales  of  the  bleak 
{Leuciscus  alburmis),  a  fish  indigenous  to  the  rivers  of  France, 
is  now  used  largely  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  pearls. 
The  solution  or  guaiiiiie  is  a  mucus  which  lubricates  the 
scales  of  the  fish.  It  coagulates  by  heat  to  a  thick,  white 
deposit,  and  is  obtained  by  carefully  scraping  the  fish  over 
a  shallow  tub  containing  fresh  water.  Care  is  taken  not  to 
scale  the  black  or  dorsal  part,  as  these  scales  are  yellow, 
while  the  white  scales  only  possess  value.  The  material  is 
received  on  a  horsehair  sieve.  The  first  water,  mixed  with 
a  little  blood,  is  thrown  away.  The  scales  are  then  washed 
and  pressed,  when  the  mucus  or  essence  {guanine)  sinks  to 
the  bottom  of  the  tub  and  appears  as  a  very  brilliant  blue- 
white  oily  mass.  It  takes  40,000  fish  to  furnish  two  pounds 
of  the  material.  The  fishermen  seal  it  in  tin  boxes  with 
ammonia,  and  in  this  condition  send  it  to  Paris.  If  a  drop 
of  the  essence  be  taken  up  by  a  straw  and  let  fall  upon 
water,  it  floats,  giving  forth  the  most  brilliant  colours.  Glass 
bulbs,  in  the  shape  of  pearls,  lined  with  this  substance, 
imitate  the  real  gems  with  remarkable  closeness. 


CHAPTER  X. 

INDUSTRIAL  AND   MANUFACTURING  USES  OF   SHELLS. 

Composition  of  shells — Variety  of  forms  and  colours — "Various  economic  uses 
to  which  they  are  put — -Extensive  commerce  in  shells — Shell  cameos — The 
cowry  shells — ^Their  various  uses,  as  currency,  for  decoration,  etc. — Shells 
worn  for  personal  ornament — Wampum  or  treaty  belts  of  shells — Shells 
as  studies  of  design — British  commerce  in  shells. 

Shells,  from  their  variety  of  structure  and  colour,  and 
their  singular  beauty,  have  always  formed  a  fruitful  theme  of 
description  for  the  writer  and  the  poet.  The  works  of  most 
of  our  best  authors  teem  with  lovely  passages,  many  of 
which  must  occur  to  the  memory  of  any  general  reader. 

*'  Their  exquisite,  fragile,  and  beautiful  forms 
Are  nursed  by  the  ocean  and  rocked  by  the  storms." 

By  young  and  old,  savage  and  civilized,  shells  are  alike 
admired  and  coveted,  either  for  personal  decoration,  for  the 
cabinet  of  the  collector  and  the  naturalist,  or  as  simple 
ornaments  in  a  room. 

The  uses  to  which  shells  are  applied  are  more  extensive 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  trade  is  growing  year  by 
year  into  greater  importance  ;  and  there  is  ample  scope  yet 
for  its  extension  with  profit  and  advantage,  alike  to  the 
merchant  and  importer,  to  the  manufacturer  and  vendor, 
and  to  the  general  public  who  are  the  purchasers. 


268       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

To  understand  the  composition  of  shells,  a  little  pre- 
liminary scientific  definition  must  be  given.  It  has  been 
observed  that  shells  may  be  regarded  as  epidermal  in  their 
character,  being  formed  upon  the  surface  of  a  filmy  cloak- 
like organ,  called  a  mantle,  which  answers  to  the  true 
skin  of  other  animals.  A  slimy  juice,  consisting  of  a 
membranaceous  tissue,  consolidated  by  an  admixture  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  exudes  from  the  glands  of  this  important 
organ,  and,  thickening  in  successive  layers,  becomes  hard- 
ened and  moulded  on  the  body,  at  first  simple  and  un- 
adorned, but  subsequently  embellished  according  to  the 
taste  or  inclination  of  the  occupant.  Each  shell  is  therefore 
composed  of  animal  and  calcareous  matter  ;  the  first  con- 
stitutes a  membranaceous  basis,  which  is  equally  curious 
and  beautiful,  being  either  formed  of  cells  with  hexagonal 
walls,  or  else  of  laminae,  more  or  less  wrinkled,  like  morocco 
leather.  Shells  which  are  always  concealed  by  the  mantle 
are  colourless  ;  and  those  which  are  covered  by  the  mantle- 
lobes,  when  the  animal  expands,  acquire  a  glazed  or  en- 
amelled surface,  like  the  cowries  ;  when  the  shell  is  deeply 
immersed  in  the  foot  of  the  animal  it  becomes  partly 
glazed,  as  in  Cymba.  In  all  other  shells  there  is  an  outer 
layer  of  gelatinous  matter  forming  what  is  called  the 
epidermis,  although  it  is  sometimes  very  thin  and  trans- 
parent. 

Woodward  well  remarks  that  the  forms  and  colours  of 
shells  (as  of  other  natural  objects)  answer  some  particular 
purpose,  or  obey  some  general  law  ;•  but  besides  this  there 
is  much  that  seems  specially  intended  for  our  study  and 
calculated  to  call  forth  enlightened  admiration.  Thus  the 
tints  of  many  shells  are  concealed  during  life  by  a  dull 
external  coat,  and  the  pearly  halls  of  the  nautilus  are  seen 
by  no  other  eyes  than  ours. 


Industrial  and  Mariufadu^dng  Uses  of  Shells.     269 

The  variety  in  the  figure,  colour,  and  characters  of  sea 
shells  is  almost  infinite.  The  most  beautifijl  come  from 
the  Pacific  and  Australian  coasts.  The  sun,  by  the  great 
heat  that  it  throws  on  the  seas  near  the  equator,  would 
seem  to  have  some  effect  in  heightening  the  colours  of  shells 
produced  in  tropical  zones,  and  the  nature  of  the  food  of 
the  animals  probably  gives  them  a  lustre  and  a  brilliancy 
which  are  wanting  in  those  of  colder  latitudes. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  purposes  to  which 
shells  are  applied,  but  some  few  may  be  specified. 

The  shells  of  Stronilms,  Triton,  Dolium,  Fnsus,  Murex, 
and  Bticcinuui  are  used  for  fog-horns,  trumpets,  lamps,  vases, 
and  ornamental  borders  in  flower  gardens.  Those  of 
Biisycon,  Sycotypiis,  Mactra,  etc.,  by  Indians  in  the  manu- 
facture of  implements.  Shells  of  species  of  Mactra  for 
ladles,  scoops,  and  spoons,  by  fishermen.  Those  of 
Tridacna  for  vases,  fountains,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
handles  and  carvings.  The  shells  of  Pectai,  Haliotis,  Den- 
taliiun,  Alercciiaria,  etc.,  by  the  Indians  for  trimmings  and 
ornaments.  The  scallop  or  palmer's  shell  {^Pecten  jacobcetis) 
was  used  as  a  decoration  of  honour.  Other  Pectais  are 
used  in  making  pincushions  and  purses.  The  chank  shell  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  Hindoo  bangles,  and  in  polish- 
ing or  glazing  cloth.  The  painter's  mussel  {Unio pictoriwi) 
is  used  to  hold  gold  and  silver  colours.  The  shells  of 
Plaaina  placenta  are  employed  in  China  as  a  substitute  for 
glass.  Cytlierea  lusoria,  the  painted  shell  of  the  Japanese, 
with  pretty  designs  on  it,  is  used  for  playing  a  game.  The 
cowries  serve  for  currency  in  India  and  in  the  African  trade, 
and  for  trimmings  to  various  trappings.  The  shells  of 
Mercenaria  violacea,  Purpura  lapillus,  and  Bnccinnm  nnda- 
tiim  are  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
America  in  the  manufacture  of  their  native  money,  and 


270       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

for  modern  wampum  or  shell  beads  for  the  Indian  trade. 
The  Jiyqua  or  Dentalhnn  shells  are  employed  in  a  similar 
manner  by  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  shells 
of  CyprcBa,  Rotclla,  Oliva,  Tnrrctella^  Phasianella  (Venetian 
shells),  etc.,  are  mounted  as  buttons  and  jewellery.  Com- 
position shellwork  for  book-covers  and  frames  is  made  by 
glueing  various  shells  in  mosaics.  Calcined  shells  are  used 
by  dentrifice  and  porcelain  makers.  Cuttle-fish  bone,  from 
Sepia  officinalis,  has  various  uses.  The  opercula  of  some 
molluscs  are  used  as  "  eye-stones,"  and  polished  and  set  for 
jewellery. 

In  considering  the  manufacturing  and  useful  applica- 
tions of  shells,  they  might  be  conveniently  ranged  under 
the  following  groups  : — i.  The  nacreous  shells  used  for 
making  pearl  buttons  and  other  useful  and  ornamental 
articles.  2.  The  pearly  and  iridescent  shells,  for  orna- 
menting papier-mache  work,  making  card-cases,  folios, 
jewel-cases,  etc.  3.  Various  small  shells  used  for  making 
shell  flowers  and  different  fancy  articles  of  grouped  shells, 
and  for  ladies'  bracelets,  head-dresses,  etc.  4.  The  shells 
used  for  carving  cameos  to  set  in  brooches,  bracelets,  neck- 
laces, scarf-pins,  for  studs  and  sleeve-links,  and  other 
articles  of  personal  decoration.  5.  Shells  used  for  spoons, 
drinking-vessels,  lamps,  handles  for  knives,  and  other  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy  ;  for  snuff-boxes,  pipes,  and 
such  like  curiosities.  6.  For  making  the  purest  kind  of 
lime  when  calcined ;  for  manure,  in  the  form  of  shell  sand 
and  shell  marl;  and  for  making  pottery- ware  and  a  glaze  or 
enamel,  when  crushed.  7.  Shells  are  largely  used  for  small 
monetary  payments  in  North  America,  India,  and  Africa, 
and  also  as  counters  in  games  of  chance.  Lastly,  they 
serve  as  studies  of  design,  form,  and  colour  for  the  sculptor, 
painter,  and  art  manufacturer. 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     2  7 1 

There  arc  other  uses  besides  the  foregoing,  but  at  least 
these  are  the  principal  ones. 

Let  us  pass  on  now  to  speak  first  of  the  shells  used  for 
carving  cameos,  and  those  employed  to  form  articles  of 
personal  decoration. 

Of  the  quantities  imported  for  this  purpose  we  can 
obtain  no  reliable  details.  The  shells  come  over  in  bags, 
and  every  now  and  then  the  City  brokers  announce  a  sale 
of  bull's  mouth,  helmet  shells,  queen  conchs,  etc.,  but  no 
aggregate  records  are  kept  of  the  numbers. 

To  show,  however,  the  extent  of  the  trade  in  shells, 
here  are  the  particulars  of  the  sales  advertised  on  one  day 
in  London  (October  loth,  1 871),  by  various  City  brokers:— 


By 

Lewis 

and  Peat 

— 

275  cases 

Bombay  M.O.P. 

« 

43     M 

Egyptian 

>> 

6     „ 

Gambia 

>> 

262    „ 

Panama 

» 

45    .» 

of  cowries 

81  packages  fancy  shells 
195  cases  Japan  ear  shells. 

By  Ellis  and  Hale — 

140  cases  and  6  casks  of  M.O.P.  from  Fremantle. 

8     ,,     and  27  serons  M.  O.  P.  Bombay. 
211     „      cases  of  cowries. 
24  tons  of  Japan  ear  shells. 

By  Price,  Hickman  and  Co. — 

18  cases  Bombay  M.O.P. 

By  Bowyer  and  Bartlett — 

41  cases  M.O.P. 
6000  conch  shells. 
1400  helmet  shells. 

*  The  trade  abbreviation  for  mother-of-pearl. 


272       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 
By  Brooks  and  Faith — 

84  baskets,  13  bags,  and  10,000  loose  green  snail. 
230  packages  and  10  tons  of  loose  Japan  ear  shells. 
12,000  turbos. 

By  Donald  Gray  and  Sons — 

39  cases  Manila  and  51  cases  Bombay  M.O. P. 
I  case  red  shank  shells. 

By  John  Griffin  and  Son — 

194  cases  Bombay  M.O. P. 
381  bags  Maldive  cowries. 
5  tons  Japan  green  ear. 

Most  of  the  univalve  shells  are  of  the  character  called 
porcelanous,  from  their  brittleness,  translucence,  and  the 
resemblance  of  their  fracture  to  that  of  porcelain.  But  this 
fracture,  when  examined  by  a  microscope,  reveals  a  struc- 
ture of  thick  parallel  layers,  usually  of  a  fine  fibrous  nature, 
at  right  angles  to  the  external  surface.  The  soluble  part 
of  these  shells  is  carbonate  of  lime,  the  particles  of  which 
are  cemented  together  with  a  very  minute  proportion  of 
animal  mucus.  The  hard  and  compact  nature  of  such 
shells,  and  their  generally  smooth  surface,  prevent  their 
being  cut  by  the  ordinary  tools  which  are  available  for  the 
less  hard  and  frangible  nacreous  shells  ;  it  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  treat  them  with  emery,  rotten-stone,  and  other 
substances  harder  than  themselves. 

Such  shells  generally  require  rather  to  be  polished  than 
cut,  but  where  it  is  necessary  to  divide  them,  in  order  to 
exhibit  their  sections,  they  are  operated  upon  by  means  of 
the  sheer  with  diamond  poAvder. 

Certain  description  of  these  shells  are  well  adapted  for 
cameo-cutting,  from  their  substance  being  made  up  of  dii- 
ferently  coloured  layers,  and  also  from  a  difference  of  hard- 
ness and  texture  in  the  various  layers,  some  approaching 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells,    273 

more  nearly  to  the  nature  of  nacreous  than  of  porcelanous 
material. 

The  word  cameo,  derived  from  an  Arab  word,  signifying 
bas-relief,  was  originally  restricted  to  hard  stones,  such  as 
onyx,  sardonyx,  etc.,  engraved  in  relief;  but  the  name  has 
since  been  extended  to  gems  cut  on  shell,  lava,  and  other 
substances. 

The  good  workman  always  carefully  puts  his  work  on 
the  shell  in  such  a  manner  that  the  direction  of  the  laminae 
of  the  central  coat  is  longitudinal.  In  cameos  the  central 
layer  forms  the  body  of  the  relief,  the  inner  layer  being  the 
ground,  and  the  outer  the  third  or  superficial  colour,  which 
is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  varied  appearance  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  figure.  The  cameo-cutter  selects  from  the 
shells  which  have  the  three  layers  : — i.  Those  which  have 
the  layers  strongly  adherent  together,  for  if  they  separate 
his  labour  is  lost  ;  2.  Those  in  which  the  middle  layer  is 
thick  ;  3.  Those  in  which  there  is  a  good  distinction  of 
colour  between  the  layers ;  and  4.  Those  in  which  the 
inner  layer  is  of  the  colour  suited  to  his  purpose. 

The  kinds  now  employed,  and  which  experience  has 
taught  him  are  best  for  his  purpose,  are — i.  The  bull's 
mouth  {Cassis  riifa),  which  has  a  red  inner  coat,  or  what  is 
called  a  sardonyx  ground.  The  shell  is  red  with  several 
series  of  thick  knobs,  the  outer  lip  deep  yellowish  red. 
2.  The  black  helmet  {C.  Madagascariensis),  which  has  a 
blackish  inner  coat,  or  what  is  called  an  onyx  ground,  and 
shows  up  white  upon  a  dark  claret  colour.  The  shell  is 
often  nearly  a  foot  long.  3.  The  horned  helmet  {C. 
cornuta),  white  with  an  orange  yellozv  ground  ;  and  4.  The 
queen  conch  {Strojnbus  gigas),  with  a  pink  ground.  This 
shell  is  about  10  inches  long,  aperture  rose-coloured,  lip  ex- 
tremely broad,  rounded  above.     .S".  pugilis,  another  species, 


2  74       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

is  a  turbinate  shell,  reddish  and  yellow,  lip  rose-coloured 
without  and  striated.  The  bull's  mouth  and  black  helmet 
are  the  best  shells,  for  the  horned  helmet  is  apt  to  separate 
from  the  ground,  or  to  "  double,"  as  the  French  workmen 
call  it ;  the  queen  conch  has  the  two  colours  seldom 
distinctly  marked  from  each  other,  and  the  pink  of  the 
ground  flies  by  exposure  to  the  light.  The  red  colour 
of  the  bull's  mouth  only  extends  a  small  distance  in  the 
mouth  of  the  shell,  becoming  paler  as  it  proceeds  back- 
ward, as  may  be  observed  by  the  pale  side  generally  to 
be  seen  in  such  red-grounded  cameos.  Hence,  the  bull's 
mouth  affords  only  a  single  cameo  large  enough  for  a 
brooch,  and  several  small  pieces  for  shirt-studs,  while  the 
black  helmet  furnishes  on  an  average  about  five  brooches 
and  several  stud-pieces.  The  queen  conch  yields  only  a 
single  good  piece.  Cassis  flammea,  about  six  inches  long, 
and  C  deaissata  and  C.  tuberosa,  white  upon  a  dark  claret 
colour,  are  occasionally  used. 

The  bull's  mouth  shells  are  brought  from  India  and 
Ceylon,  the  black  helmets  and  the  queen  conchs  from  the 
West  Indies,  and  all  are  supplied  through  the  London 
market. 

Shell  cameos,  some  years  ago,  were  a  good  deal  in 
fashion  ;  and  even  now  a  well-executed,  artistic  Roman 
shell  cameo  is  an  elegant  work  of  art.  Genoa  and  Rome 
are  the  seats  of  the  best  work,  although  many  common 
ones  are  cut  in  France.  In  Rome  there  are  about  80  shell- 
cameo  cutters,  and  in  Genoa  30,  some  of  whom  also  carve 
in  coral.  The  art  of  cameo-cutting  was  confined  to  Rome 
for  upwards  of  40  years,  and  to  Italy  until  the  last  26 
years,  at  which  time  an  Italian  began  cutting  cameos  in 
Paris,  and  now  over  3000  persons  are  employed  in  that 
city. 


I 


Industrial  and  Mauufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     275 

The  black  helmet,  on  account  of  the  advantageous 
contrast  of  colour  in  the  layers,  produces  very  effective 
cameos,  the  carved  figure  of  the  white  upper  layer  being 
strongly  relieved  by  the  dark,  almost  black,  ground  supplied 
by  the  second  layer.  The  shell  is  first  cut  into  pieces,  the 
size  of  the  required  cameos,  by  means  of  diamond  dust  and 
the  slitting  mill,  or  by  a  blade  of  steel  fed  with  emery 
and  water. 

It  is  then  carefully  shaped  into  a  square,  oval,  or  other 
form  on  the  grindstone,  and  the  edge  finished  with  oil- 
stone. It  is  next  cemented  to  a  block  of  wood,  which 
serves  as  a  handle  to  be  grasped  by  the  artist  while  tracing 
out  with  a  pencil  the  figure  to  be  cut  on  the  shell. 

The  pencil  mark  is  followed  by  a  sharp  point,  which 
scratches  the  desired  outline,  and  this  again  by  delicate 
tools  of  steel  Wire,  flattened  at  the  end  and  hardened,  and 
by  files  and  gravers,  for  the  removal  of  the  superfluous 
portions  of  the  white  enamel  A  common  darning-needle, 
fixed  in  a  wooden  handle,  forms  a  useful  tool  in  this  very 
minute  and  delicate  species  of  carving.  The  careful  mani- 
pulation necessary  in  this  work  can  only  be  acquired  by 
experience  ;  the  general  shape  must  first  be  wrought,  care 
being  taken  to  leave  every  projection  rather  in  excess,  to  be 
gradually  reduced  as  the  details  and  finish  of  the  work  are 
approached.  To  render  the  high  parts  more  distinct 
during  the  process  of  carving  they  are  slightly  marked  in 
black. 

Throughout  the  cutting,  great  caution  must  be  observed 
that  in  removing  the  white  thickness  the  dark  ground  is 
not  damaged,  for  the  natural  surface  of  the  dark  layer  is 
far  superior  to  any  that  can  be  given  artificially  ;  indeed, 
should  the  ground  be  broken  up  at  one  part,  it  would  be 
requisite  to  remove  the  entire  scale  or  lamina  from  the 


276       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

whole  surface — a  process  very  tedious,  and  much  more 
difficult  than  separating  the  white  from  the  black.  In 
order  that  the  finished  cameo  may  possess  a  distinct  out- 
line at  all  points  of  view,  it  is  desirable  to  adopt  the  system 
followed  in  antique  cameos  ;  namely,  to  leave  all  the  edges 
of  the  figure  quite  square  from  the  ground,  and  not 
gradually  rounded  down  to  the  dark  surface.  Should 
this  latter  method  be  followed,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
outline  is  in  many  places  undefined,  owing  to  the  colour  of 
the  white  raised  figure  of  the  cameo  gradually  emerging 
into  that  of  the  dark  ground  ;  this  evil  is  entirely  avoided 
by  leaving  the  edge  of  the  figure  quite  square  for  the  thick- 
ness of  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch. 

The  surface  of  the  cameo  should  be  finished  as  nearly 
as  possible  with  the  cutting  tools,  as  all  polishing  with 
abrasive  powders  is  liable  to  remove  the  sharp  edges  of  the 
figures  and  deteriorate  the  cameo  by  leaving  the  form 
undefined.  When,  however,  the  work  has  been  finished  as 
smooth  as  possible  with  cutting  tools,  the  final  polish  may 
be  given  by  a  little  putty-powder  used  dry,  upon  a  mode- 
rately stiff  brush,  applied  with  care,  and  rather  to  the  dark 
ground  than  to  the  carved  surface  ;  this  is  the  concluding 
process,  after  which  the  cameo  is  ready  for  removing  from 
the  block  prior  to  mounting. 

The  various  styles  in  which  they  are  mounted  depends 
a  great  deal  upon  the  country  where  they  are  to  be  worn. 

At  the  various  international  exhibitions  which  have 
been  held,  some  very  fine  examples  of  Roman  shell-cameo 
cutting  have  been  shown.  At  the  Dublin  Exhibition  in 
1865,  Giuseppe  Saulicini,  of  Naples,  exhibited  excellent 
samples  of  artistic  workmanship,  priced  at  from  £2  to  £/^ 
each,  representing,  among  others.  Night  and  Day,  the 
Virgin   and   Child,   after    Carlo    Dolce ;    Flora,   from   the 


htdiistrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     277 

antique  ;  Bacchanals,  from  a  fresco  found  at  Pompeii ; 
Peace,  Medusa,  Aurora,  Ceres,  and  other  subjects.  Giuseppe 
Tari  showed  cameos  with  the  figures  of  St.  Paul,  St.  Peter, 
Michael  Angelo,  and  Galileo.  Luigi  Saulini,  of  Rome,  also 
showed  18  fine  shell  cameos.  At  the  Naples  Maritime 
International  Exhibition,  Domenico  Pascoli,  of  Rome, 
received  a  first-class  silver  medal  for  work  on  shell  cameos. 
At  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878,  Francati  and  Sante  Maria, 
of  Rome,  showed  some  fine  cameos  carved  on  various  shells, 
and  parures  and  ornaments  made  from  the  pink-mouthed 
conch  {Strombiis  gigas).  A  fraud  is  frequently  practised  by 
cutting  away  the  engraved  part  of  old  shell  cameos,  and 
attaching  this  to  a  base  of  agate,  by  which  an  appearance 
of  onyx  is  obtained. 

Solid  round  beads  are  turned  from  the  cameo  shells 
and  threaded"  for  bracelets.  Bracelets  and  sleeve-links  are 
also  made  of  the  polished  pearly  Trochns  or  Venetian  shells 
of  commerce. 

The  shells  of  the  cowry  family  next  claim  our  attention, 
— a  most  extensive  genus,  distinguished,  if  not  for  their 
elegance  of  form,  yet  for  beauty  and  variety  of  tints  and 
richness  of  polish.  This  polish  is  preserved  by  the  animal, 
while  alive,  enveloping  the  shell  in  the  mantle  or  mem- 
branous fold.  They  are  in  general  smooth,  glossy  shells,  of 
great  brilliancy  of  colour,  and  elegantly  marked  with  dots, 
zigzag  lines,  undulations,  stripes,  and  so  forth.  They  are 
all,  excepting  the  small  British  cowry,  natives  of  the  seas 
of  warm  climates.  Many  of  them  are  very  highly  prized 
by  collectors,  and  several  are  turned  to  use  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

The  species  of  cowries  principally  used  for  bracelets, 
sleeve-links,  or  brooches  and  small  charms,  are  Cyprcea 
undata,  C.  Jelina,  C.  asilliis,  C.  ziczac,  C.  cribarea,  and  C. 


278       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

reticulata.  Cameos  are  sometimes  traced  on  the  back  of  the 
blue-back  cowry  {CyprcBa  mo^/eta),  a.nd  when  linked  together 
make  very  neat  bracelets.  Cowries  are  sometimes  used  for 
making  an  enamel  for  clock-faces  and  a  glaze  for  plates. 

Cowries  are  largely  dealt  in  for  exchange  purposes,  and 
are  shipped  in  quantities  to  West  Africa.  They  are  chosen 
for  their  bright  enamel,  small,  even  size,  and  not  being 
mixed  with  spurious  shells.  Maldive  cowries  fetch  from 
12s.  to  35^-.  the  cwt.  ;  Dacca  and  Cuttack  cowries,  6s.  to 
22s.  6d.  the  cwt. ;  but  common  blue  and  dead  shells,  that  is, 
those  with  no  gloss  or  enamel,  are  only  worth  35-.  6d.  to  1 5^-. 
the  cwt. 

Cowries  form  no  inconsiderable  item  in  trade,  two  of 
the  smaller  white  species  being  collected  for  use  as  a  circu- 
lating medium,  the  true  money  cowry  {Cyprea  monetci)  and 
the  false  or  ring  cowry  {C.  aimuld)  passing  current  in 
many  parts  of  Africa  as  mediums  of  exchange.  One 
Hamburg  house  sends  annually  14  vessels  to  Zanzibar  for 
cargoes  of  cowries,  with  which  they  proceed  to  the  rivers 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  purchase  cargoes  of  palm 
oil  or  other  produce.  The  following  shows  the  imports  of 
cowries  into  the  port  of  Lagos  alone,  and  a  duty  is  levied 
on  them  of  one  shilling  per  cwt.  : — 

Cwts. 

1868  ...      ...      ...      ...  65,496 

1869  ...      ...      ...      ...  56,040 

1870      50.340 

Their  relative  currency  value  varies  in  different  localities. 
In  British  India  about  4000  pass  for  a  shilling,  and  the 
erection  of  a  church,  which  cost  ^^^4000,  is  said  to  have  been 
paid  for  entirely  with  cowries.  The  ordinary  gradation  or 
value  on  the  West  coast  of  Africa  is  as  follows  ; — 

40  cowries    =  I  string. 
24  strings    =  \d. 
100  cowries    —  \d. 


Industrial  and  ManufacHiring  Uses  of  Shells.    279 

50  strings  =  I  head  of  cowries. 

10  heads  =  1  bag. 

2000  cowries  =  I  head. 

3  heads  =  i  dollar. 

20,000  cowries  =  i  bag. 

In  other  places  they  are  valued  at  about  is.  2,d.  the  looo. 
Sometimes  60,000  to  100,000  (or  from  £2,  i^s.  to  £"/  los.) 
are  given  for  a  young  wife,  whilst  a  more  common  or 
ordinary  wife  may  be  had  for  20,000  cowries,  or  25^-.  In 
Sudan,  much  as  the  people  trade,  they  have  no  other 
currency  than  the  cowry,  of  which  2000  shells,  weighing 
from  five  to  seven  pounds,  are  worth  only  one  dollar.  Since 
the  recent  expansion  of  traffic  in  that  country,  the  cowry 
currency  is  already  becoming  an  almost  intolerable  burden, 
which  operates  as  a  powerful  check  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
people.  Although  completely  depreciated  in  the  territory 
of  the  Upper- Nile,  cowries  still  form  among  the  Mittoo 
tribes,  between  5°  and  6°  N,  lat,  a  favourite  ornament. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  at  the  same  time  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  species,  the  tiger  cowry,  is  frequently 
cut  for  snuff-boxes,  made  into  ink-holders  and  ring-stands, 
salt-cellars,  etc.,  and  has  frequently  the  Lord's  Prayer  or 
sentences  engraved  on  it.  They  are  often  mounted  as 
punch-ladles  and  spoon-bowls,  made  into  whistles  and 
other  fancy  articles,  and  shaped  into  grotesque  imitations 
of  animals. 

The  skin  jacket  worn  by  some  of  the  Bornean  tribes  in 
war  is  ornamented  with  small  shells  placed  over  one 
another,  like  scales  or  links  in  a  coat  of  armour.  The 
Dyaks  stick  small  white  money  cowries  in  the  eye-sockets 
of  the  skulls  of  their  enemies,  which  they  keep  ;  they  look 
like  a  closed  eye.  In  India  these  shells  are  much  used 
to  ornament  the  trappings  of  horses  and  elephants,  and 
many  of  these   cowry  bands   may  be  seen    in   the  India 


28o       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Museum.  Cowry  shells  are  also  strung  like  beads,  or 
sewed  like  buttons  on  their  dress  by  Brinjari  women  as 
personal  ornaments,  and  are  in  circulation  as  money  in 
the  Hyderabad  State,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

The  valuable  cargoes  of  sandal-wood  obtained  in  some 
of  the  Pacific  Islands  for  the  China  market  are,  in  the  first 
instance,  purchased  from  the  New  Hebrides  by  means  of  a 
shell — the  Ovidtmi  angiuosiim,  a  white  porcelanous  variety 
of  cowry  with  a  violet-coloured  lip — which  is  found  in  the 
Friendly  Islands,  but  never  in  the  sandal-wood  region. 
This  shell  is  so  highly  esteemed  as  an  ornament  by  the 
natives  of  the  New  Hebrides,  that  for  one  shell  they  will 
give  in  exchange  a  ton  of  sandal-wood.  The  trading 
captains  go  expressly  to  the  Tongan  Archipelago  for  the 
shells,  where  they  sell  at  a  Spanish  dollar  each. 

As  objects  of  decoration,  certain  shells  have  always 
been  in  great  demand  among  savage  and  semi-civilized 
peoples. 

A  substance  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  easily  worked, 
such  as  is  offered  by  nature  in  the  shells  of  marine  and 
fresh-water  molluscs,  could  not  fail  to  attract  the  attention 
of  men  in  the  earliest  times.  The  love  of  personal  adorn- 
ment, moreover,  already  manifests  itself  in  the  lowest  stages 
of  human  development,  and  shells  being,  above  other 
natural  productions,  particularly  fitted  to  be  made  into 
ornaments,  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  were  employed 
for  that  purpose  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  North 
American  tribes  made  an  extensive  use  of  the  shells  of  the 
seacoast  as  well  as  those  of  their  rivers,  and  fossil  marine 
shells  were  also  employed  as  ornaments.  The  valves  of 
recent  marine  molluscs,  indeed,  must  have  been  widely 
circulated  by  barter,  considering  that  they  are  found,  in 
the  shape  of  ornaments,  and  sometimes  of  utensils,  in  the 


Industrial  and  Ma7mfacturing'  Uses  of  Shells.     281 

interior   of  North   America,  at   great   distance   from   the 
shores  of  the  sea. 

Many  tribes  of  North  American  Indians  used  to  wear 
necklaces  of  shell  beads,  which  served  as  money.  They 
were  called  wampums.  Those  on  the  Atlantic  side  were 
made  pf  the  clam  shell  ( Vejiiis  mercenarid).  Those  made 
from  the  internal  purple  part  of  the  shell  of  Merceiiaria 
violacea,  Schum,  Venus  merccnario;  Lin.  and  Lam.,  were 
most  esteemed,  constituting  the  seawan  or  wainpum,  the 
specie  currency  of  the  natives.  Six  of  the  former  (blue)  and 
three  of  the  white  were  equivalent  to  an  English  penny. 
The  Dentalium,  or  tooth-shell,  was  another  monetary  tender 
of  the  natives  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  known 
under  the  name  of  sarqiio.  It  is  a  milk-white,  round  shell, 
of  extreme  hardness,  resembling  the  shank  of  a  common 
clay  pipe.  It  varies  in  length  from  one  to  four  inches,  and 
is  about  half  an  inch  thick,  hollow,  slightly  curved,  and 
tapering  a  little  towards  the  ends.  They  were  valued  in 
proportion  to  the  number  that,  when  ranged  on  a  string 
passed  through  their  hollow  tubes,  extended  a  fathom  in 
length.  Forty  to  the  fathom  was  supposed  to  be  the  fixed 
standard  of  excellence  and  worth.  Thus,  their  currency 
value  was,  in  the  fur  regions — 

Beaver  skin. 

40  shells,  extending  i  fathom  ...  ...     i 

39        M  M  M  ...  ...        2 

3S     J>  M  I,  ...  ...      3 

These  shells  abound  in  certain  places  of  the  Pacific 
coast ;  being  open  at  both  ends,  they  can  be  strung 
without  further  preparation.  They  have  been  found  in 
the  interior  of  the  country,  far  from  the  Pacific  coast,  as 
personal  ornaments  of  existing  tribes,  and  even  in  the 
ancient  mounds  of  Ohio.  The  latter  fact,  indeed,  is  of 
great  interest  in  its  bearing  on  the  extent  pf  forme? 
13 


282       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

aboriginal  trade-religions,  the  distance  from  the  Pacific 
to  the  State  of  Ohio  being  almost  equal  to  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  North  American  continent.  The  Dentaliicm 
is  also  found  in  the  West  Indies.  If  it  should  likewise 
occur  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the  United  States,  there  is 
at  least  a  possibility  that  the  specimens  found  in  Ohio  may 
have  been  obtained  from  the  last-named  region. 

The  term  "  wampum  "  is  often  applied  to  shell  beads 
in  general,  but  should  be  confined  to  a  certain  class  of 
cylindrical  beads,  usually  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  and 
drilled  lengthwise,  which  were  chiefly  manufactured  from 
the  shells  of  the  common  hard-shell  clam  ( Venus  mercenaria, 
Lin.).  This  bivalve  occurring,  as  every  one  knows,  in  great 
abundance  on  the  North  American  coasts,  formed  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  of  the  Indians  living  near  the  sea, 
a  fact  demonstrated  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  cast-away 
clam  shells,  which  form  a  considerable  part  of  North 
American  kjoekkenmoeddings.  The  natives  used  to  string 
the  molluscs  and  to  dry  them  for  consumption  during 
winter.  The  blue  or  violet  portions  of  the  clam  shells 
furnished  the  material  for  the  dark  wampum,  which  was 
held  in  much  higher  estimation  than  that  made  of  the  white 
part  of  the  shells,  or  of  the  spines  of  certain  univalves. 
Even  at  the  present  time  places  are  pointed  out  on  the 
Atlantic  sea-board — for  example,  on  that  of  Long  Island — 
where  the  Indians  manufactured  wampum,  and  such  locali- 
ties may  be  recognized  by  the  accumulations  of  clam  shells 
from  which  the  blue  portions  are  broken  off.  Wampum 
beads  formed  a  favourite  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
necklaces,  bracelets,  and  other  articles  of  ornament,  and 
they  constituted  the  strings  and  belts  of  wampum,  which 
played  such  a  conspicuous  part  in  Indian  history.  Loskiel 
makes  the  following  statement  in  reference  to  wampum : — 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     283 

"  They  made  some  of  shells,  which  they  highly  esteemed, 
but  they  manufactured  them  very  rarely,  because  this 
labour  required  much  time  for  want  of  the  proper  tools  ; 
and  the  beads,  moreover,  were  of  a  rude  and  clumsy 
appearance.  Soon  after  their  arrival  in  America,  the  Euro- 
peans began  to  manufacture  wampum  from  shells,  very 
neatly  and  in  abundance,  exchanging  it  to  the  Indians  for 
other  commodities,  thus  carrying  on  a  very  profitable  trade. 
The  Indians  now  abandoned  their  wooden  belts  and  strings, 
and  substituted  those  of  shell.  The  latter,  of  course,  gradu- 
ally declined  in  value,  but,  nevertheless,  were  and  still  are 
much  prized." 

The  great  value  attached  to  wampum  as  an  ornament 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  passage  from  the  work 
of  Roger  Williams,  who  emigrated  to  North  America  in 
163 1  : — "They  hang  these  strings  of  money  about  their 
necks  and  wrists,  as  also  upon  the  necks  and  wrists  of 
their  wives  and  children.  Mdchequoce,  a  girdle ;  which  they 
make  curiously,  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  five  inches 
thickness  and  more,  of  this  money,  which  (sometimes  to  the 
value  of  ^10  and  more)  they  wear  about  their  middle 
and  as  a  scarfe  about  their  shoulders  and  breasts.  Yea, 
the  princes  make  rich  caps  and  aprons  (or  small  breeches) 
of  these  beads  thus  curiously  strung  into  many  formes  and 
figures  ;  their  blacke  and  white  finely  mixt  together."  The 
wampum  belts,  so  often  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
history  of  the  eastern  tribes,  consisted  of  broad  straps  of 
leather,  upon  which  white  and  blue  wampum  beads  were 
sewed  in  rows,  being  so  arranged  that  by  the  contrast  of 
the  light  and  dark  colours  certain  figures  were  produced. 
The  Indians,  it  is  well  known,  exchanged  these  belts  at  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  and  on  other  solemn  occasions,  in 
order  to  ratify  the  transaction  and  to  perpetuate  the  remem- 


284      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

brance  of  the  event.  When  sharp  admonitions  or  threaten- 
ing demonstrations  were  deemed  necessary,  the  wampum 
belts  likewise  played  a  part,  and  they  were  even  sent  as 
challenges  of  war.  In  these  various  cases  the  arrangement 
of  the  colours  and  figures  of  the  belts  corresponded  to  the 
object  in  view  :  on  peaceable  occasions  the  white  colour 
predominated  ;  if  the  complications  were  of  a  serious 
character,  the  dark  prevailed  ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  declara- 
tion of  war,  it  is  stated  the  belt  was  entirely  of  a  sombre 
hue,  and,  moreover,  covered  with  red  paint,  while  there 
appeared  in  the  middle  the  figure  of  a  hatchet  executed 
in  white. 

Large  quantities  of  shell  ornaments,  mostly  destined  to 
be  strung  together  or  to  be  worn  as  pendants,  have  been 
found  in  the  sepulchral  mounds  and  other  burial-places  of 
the  Indian  race.  In  Ohio,  according  to  Messrs.  Squier  and 
Davis,  beads  made  of  shell  and  other  materials  occur  even 
more  frequently  in  the  sacrificial  mounds  than  in  those  of  a 
sepulchral  character,  a  circumstance  that  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  value  attached  to  those  objects  by  their  owners, 
who  deemed  them  worthy  of  being  offered  in  their  sacrifi- 
cial rites.  The  methods  employed  by  the  manufacturers 
doubtless  being  of  the  most  primitive  character,  each  shell 
bead  was  the  result  of  a  certain  amount  of  patient  labour, 
and  consequently  was  esteemed  according  to  the  time  and 
art  bestowed  on  its  production. 

The  Indian  shell  ornament  in  its  simplest  form  con- 
sisted of  entire  specimens  of  small  marine  univalves,  such 
as  Marghiella,  Natica,  and  Oliva,  which,  after  being  con- 
veniently pierced,  could  be  strung  together  at  once  without 
further  preparation,  and  worn  as  necklaces,  etc.  The  above- 
mentioned  kinds  were  met  by  Squier  and  Davis  in  the 
mounds  of  Ohio,  and  in  opening  the  Grave  Creek  mound 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     285 

500  specimens  of  Marginclla  were  obtained  near  one  of  the 
skeletons.  Yet  the  number  of  entire  sea-shells  employed 
as  beads  by  the  natives  appears  insignificant,  when  com- 
pared with  the  enormous  quantity  of  objects  of  the  same 
class  which  they  manufactured  from  fragments  of  the 
valves  of  marine  and  fluviatile  shells.  These  wrought 
beads  exhibit  various  forms  and  sizes,  but  are  mostly  found 
in  the  shape  of  more  or  less  regular  sections  of  cylinders, 
pierced  through  the  centre. 

They  are  often  proportionately  thick,  but  sometimes 
rather  thin,  resembling  the  small  bone  buttons  of  com- 
merce. Most  of  them  are  small,  not  exceeding  six  or  seven 
millimetres  in  diameter  ;  the  largest  species,  however,  have 
a  diameter  of  no  less  than  28  millimetres. 

The  largest,  and  therefore  the  most  esteemed,  beads  and 
pendants  were  made  by  the  Indians  from  the  columdlce,  or, 
as  Cabe^a  de  Vaca  expressed  it,  from  the  "hearts,"  of  large 
conchs,  among  which  the  Strouihns  gigas  seems  to  have 
been  most  frequently  used.  These  beads  are  more  or  less 
cylindrical  or  globular,  and  always  drilled  lengthwise. 
Some  are  tapering  at  both  ends,  resembling  a  cigar  in 
shape,  and  were  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  The 
aborigines  also  made  from  the  cobunellcB  of  large  marine 
univalves  peculiar  pin-shaped  articles,  consisting  of  a  more 
or  less  massive  stem,  which  terminates  in  a  round  knob. 

Calcined  shells  furnish  the  purest  lime,  and  it  is  the 
kind  which,  under  the  name  of "  chunam,"  is  so  largely 
used  in  the  East  as  an  ingredient  with  the  areca-nut  and 
betel-leaf  masticatory. 

For  the  purpose  of  the  agriculturist,  shell-sand  and 
shell-marl,  when  obtainable,  are  highly  valuable  as  ferti- 
lizers ;  and  crushed  shells  are  used  for  covering  the  path- 
ways in  our  parks  and  the  walks  in  our  gardens,  for 
making  fine  pottery,  and  other  purposes. 


286       The  Cojnmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Lastly,  the  uses  of  shells  as  studies  of  design,  form,  and 
colour  to  the  sculptor,  painter,  architect,  and  art  manu- 
facturer, may  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum. 

Lamarck  long  ago  recommended  to  the  attentive  study 
of  the  architect  the  extreme  diversity  of  the  protuberant 
parts  on  the  surface  of  shells,  as  well  as  the  regularity  and 
elegance  of  their  distribution.  There  is  no  possible  form  of 
which  nature  does  not  offer  examples.  Architecture  would 
find  in  many  of  the  species  of  the  genus  CeritJiuim,  even 
to  those  of  Pleurotoinis  and  spirals,  a  choice  of  models  for 
the  adornment  of  columns,  and  these  models  would  be 
found  very  worthy  of  being  employed. 

Shells  were  the  favourite  objects  of  ornamentation  of 
the  older  wood-carvers,  as  evidenced  in  the  fireplaces  of 
many  ancient  mansions.  The  famous  garoon  pattern,  so 
much  used  formerly  by  silversmiths,  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  edge  of  the  trumpet  shell  {Triton  femorale),  which 
is  called  the  garoon  shell. 

There  are  many  other  industrial  uses  of  shells,  but  those 
enumerated  may  be  considered  the  principal  ones. 

Mother-of-pearl,  and  other  nacreous  shells,  will  be 
noticed  in  a  separate  chapter. 

The  aggregate  value  of  the  imports  of  foreign  shells,  in 
the  last  few  years,  may  be  taken  at  ^^"250,000.  It  is  some- 
what difficult  to  arrive  at  any  correct  estimate  on  this 
subject,  because  shells  are  scarcely  particularized  in  the 
Board  of  Trade  returns.  Classified  under  the  head  of  raw 
materials  which  come  in  "  duty  f7ee  "  for  the  use  of  manu- 
facturers, the  officials  are  very  indifferent  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  imports  ;  and  thus  we  have  no  account  of  the  rough 
cameo  shells,  the  snail  and  ear  shells,  the  ATurices,  and 
others  which  are  received  in  large  quantities.     When  shells 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     287 

were  subject  to  an  import  duty,  varying  from  5  to  20  per 
cent.,  it  was  necessary  that  the  entries  should  be  more 
specifically  detailed. 

Large  quantities  of  shells,  which  are  used  for  different 
manufacturing  purposes,  come  in  under  the  broad,  general 
heading  of  "  specimens  of  natural  history."  The  only 
specific  mention  of  shells  in  the  Parliamentary  trade  returns 
are  mother-of-pearl,  cowries,  and  cameos  unset,  besides 
pearls, — the  well-known  and  valued  product  of  the  pearl 
oyster. 

The  imports  and  value,  as  far  as  officially  stated,  in 
1870  were  : — 

Mother-of-pearl,  26, 197  cwts.  ...             ...  ^76,489 

Cowries,  61 18  cwts.     ..              ...              ...  6,347 

Cameos,  not  set           ...             ...             ...  3,445 

Miscellaneous  shells  for  collectors,  dealers, 

and  manufacturers,  about  ...             ...  14,000 

Pearls          ...             ...            ...            ...  16,675 

;^l  16,956 

These  figures  were  much  below  the  average. 

The  use  of  shells  is  not  restricted  to  this  country.  They 
are  employed  for  manufacturing  purposes  in  China  and 
India,  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  also  in  North  America  ;  so  that 
the  subject  we  have  been  considering  takes  larger  propor- 
tions than  at  first  sight  would  appear. 


288      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

INDUSTRIAL   AND   MANUFACTURING   USES   OF   SHELLS — 

Continued. 

Shell  bangles  or  bracelets,  made  from  the  chank  or  Turbinella  species — Re- 
ligious veneration  for  the  shell — Process  of  manufacture — The  bangles 
described — Great  clam  shells  used  as  benitiers— The  queen  conch,  large  im- 
portations of — Uses  of  nacreous  and  iridescent  shells — Utilization  of  shells 
for  economic  purposes — Shell  utensils — Shell  flowers — Shell  trumpets — 
Shell  pipes — Pulverized  and  calcined  shells— Ornamental  uses  of  opercula 
— Dyes  from  the  mollusca — Tyrian  purple — Marine  silk. 

Shell  Bangles  or  Bracelets, — Under  the  commercial  name 
of  chanks,  the  large  white,  concave,  heavy,  porcelaneous 

Fig.  19. 


Chank  shell  ( Tttrbtnella  fyriim). 

shells  of  tne  Turbinella  pyrmn,  Lam.,  the  Voluta  gravis, 
Lin.,  and  T.  rapa,  are  much  prized  in  India.  The  shell  is 
ventricose  above,  pear-shaped,  fulvous  white,  with  reddish 
spots  in  young  individuals. 


Industrial  and  Manufaciuring  Uses  of  Shells.     289 

The  shankh  or  chank  is  the  sacred  shell  of  the  Hindus, 
and  the  national  emblem  of  the  kingdom  of  Travancore. 
The  god  Vishnu  is  represented  as  carrying  a  chank  shell  in 
one  hand,  and  a  chakra  in  the  other. 

The  Hindus  believe  that  unless  they  worshipped  this 
shell  at  the  commencement  of  every  worship  or  prayer, 
their  offerings  would  not  be  accepted.  Vishnu,  the  Pro- 
tector, is  supposed  to  hold  a  chank  in  his  hand.  It  is 
called  Devadatta.  Shankar,  the  Destroyer,  according  to 
mythology,  possesses  a  like  shell.  The  first  incarnation  of 
Vishnu,  called  Machhavatar  (which  literally  means  trans- 
formation into  fish),  was  undertaken  for  destroying  Shan- 
khasura  (the  giant  chank  shell),  in  order  to  regain  the 
Vedas,  he  having  stolen  them  and  taken  refuge  under  the 
ocean. 

The  fishery  for  these  shells  is  principally  carried  on  in 
the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ceylon,  and  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  at  Travancore,  Tuticorin,  and  other 
places,  the  shells  being  brought  up  by  divers  in  about  two 
or  three  fathoms  of  water.  Those  taken  with  the  animal  in, 
and  called  green  chanks,  from  having  the  epidermis  on,  are 
most  in  demand.  The  white  chanks,  or  dead  shells  thrown 
upon  the  beach  by  strong  tides,  having  lost  their  enamel, 
are  scarcely  worth  the  cost  of  freight  to  Calcutta.  The 
number  obtained  varies  considerably  in  different  years, 
according  to  the  weather  and  the  success  attending  the 
divers.  Frequently  4,000,000  or  5,000,000  of  these  shells 
are  shipped  in  a  year  from  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  In  some 
years  the  value  of  the  rough  shells,  as  imported  into  Madras 
and  Calcutta,  reaches  a  value  of  ;^  10,000  to  ;^i  5,000.  A 
few  hundreds  are  occasionally  imported  into  Calcutta  from 
the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs.  The  chank  fishery  of 
Ceylon  at  one  time  employed   6o(i  divers,  and  yielded  a 


290       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


revenue  to  the  island  government  of  ^^4000  per  annum  for 
licenses.     The  fishery  is  now  free. 

These  shells  are  often  used  as  oil  vessels  or  lamps  in 
Indian  temples,  for  which  purpose  they  are  carved  and 
sculptured  or  otherwise  ornamented.  When  the  volute 
turns  to  the  right,  the  shell  is  held  in  peculiar  estimation 
— a  right-handed  chank  being  so  highly  prized  for  its 
rarity  as  sometimes  to  sell  in  Calcutta  for  its  weight  in 
gold,  or  at  from  ^40  to  ^50.    In  Ceylon  also,  the  reversed 

Fig.  20. 


Saw  used  by  natives  for  cutting  segments  of  the  shell. 

variety  is  held  sacred  by  the  priests,  who  administer  medi- 
cine by  it.  This  shell,  from  its  weight  and  smoothness, 
is  used  in  Dacca  for  calendering  or  glazing  cotton,  and  in 
Nepal  for  giving  a  polished  surface  to  paper. 

The  principal  demand  for  these  shells  is  for  making 
bangles  or  armlets  and  anklets,  and  the  manufacture  is  still 
almost  confined  to  Dacca.  The  shell  is  cut  or  sliced  into 
segments  of  circles,  or  narrow  rings  of  various  sizes,  by  a 
rude  semicircular  saw,  the  hands  and  toes  being  both 
actively  employed  in  the  operation. 


Industrial  and  Mamifacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     291 

The  introduction  of  circular  saws  has  been  attempted 
by  some  European  gentlemen,  but  sturdily  resisted  by  the 
natives  despite  their  obvious  advantages.  Some  of  these 
bangles,  worn  by  the  Hindoo  women,  are  beautifully 
painted,  gilded,  and  ornamented  with  gems.  The  shell 
rings  are  coated  inside  with  plaster  to  smooth  the  rough- 
ness. 

Filagree-bordered  edges  of  plaster  are  also  added  ; 
patterns  and  devices  of  red,  blue,  and  gold  are  figured  on 
them,  and  they  are  further  ornamented  with  silver  or  gold 
tinsel,  spangles,  small  coloured  glass  beads,  etc.  The  larger 
bracelets  formed  of  many  segments,  are  made  to  open  to 

I-k;.  21. 


Segment  of  shell,      d  bangle  or  ornamented  bracelet  of  united  segments. 

admit  the  hand,  by  two  spiral  pins,  which  unscrew  and  let 
out  the  piece.  These  bangles  are  not  removed  at  death, 
and  hence  there  is  a  continual  demand  for  them,  many 
wearing  several,  both  on  the  legs  and  arms. 

These  sankka*  or  shell  bracelets,  are  extensively  made 
for  the  women  of  the  hills  round  Sylhet  at  Dacca,  which  has 
long  been  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  such  bracelets. 
Four  of  these  shell  rings  are  worn  on  each  wrist.  The 
shak/uis,  or  shell  workers  at  Dacca,  distinguish  the  several 

*  The  native  word  ig  variously  written — Sungoo  or  Sankka,  Tamil ;  Shentoo 
or  Sinkham,  Telugu. 


292       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

shells  and  their  various  qualities  by  the  names  Titkuri, 
Pati,  Lalpati,  Alabela,  Dhala,  Kulai,  and  Shurti ;  the  Titkuri 
being  the  best  in  quality  of  grain,  lustre,  and  suitability  for 
fine  cutting  and  delicate  finish. 

There  is  considerable  variety  in  the  patterns  of  these 
sankka  bracelets,  from  the  rude  broad,  flat  ring  to  the  thin, 
delicate  armlet,  rounded,  or  with  notched  or  beaded  edges, 
carved  with  tigers'  heads,  enriched  with  ornamental  incising, 
and  illuminated  by  touches  of  tinsel,  lac-colour,  gildings,  etc. 

A  large  series  of  these  bangles  was  sent  to  the  India 
collection  of  the  London  International  Exhibition  of  1872, 
accompanied  by  specimens  of  the  shells  both  before  and 
during  the  process  of  manufacture,  together  with  the  tools 
used,  and  photographs  showing  the  men  at  work.  These 
are  now  arranged  in  the  India  Museum,  South  Kensington. 

The  chank  fishery  was  at  one  time  a  Government 
monopoly  in  India,  like  the  pearl  fishery,  and  produced  in 
the  early  part  of  the  century  a  revenue  of  about  £'JQQ)0\ 
but  as  the  divers  from  the  coast  could  easily  collect  the 
shells,  and  as  they  were  also  procured  by  digging  for  them 
in  the  sand  in  the  Jaffna  district  of  Ceylon,  the  restriction 
was  removed. 

A  heavy  porcelaneous  shell,  one  of  the  largest  known,  the 
Tridacna  gigas  of  conchologists,  is  much  used  for  benitiers, 
or  receptacles  for  holy  water,  in  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
and  for  fountain-basins  in  gardens.  It  is  the  largest  and 
heaviest  shell  known,  for  the  pair  of  valves  have  been 
found  in  some  instances  to  weigh  500  lbs.  In  its  full  size 
it  has  a  byssus  like  a  cable,  by  which  it  anchors  itself;  and 
this  has  to  be  separated  with  an  axe.  The  valves,  when 
smaller,  are  sometimes  mounted  as  salt-cellars,  candlestick- 
holders,  and  pin-cushions.  Cameos  have  also  been  carved 
on  them,   but  their  dead  white  hue  wants   the   relief  of 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     293 

colour.  The  hill  Dyaks  of  Borneo  wear  broad  armlets 
made  of  this  shell,  which,  when  polished  by  length  of  use, 
resemble  ivory,  but  never  acquire  its  yellow  tinge.  Two  of 
these  valued  shell-bracelets  on  each  arm  are  the  favourite 
number  with  the  women. 

In  the  "  Voyage  of  the  Rattlesnake "  we  are  told  the 
natives  of  Coral  Haven  wear  bracelets  of  solid  shell 
formed  by  grinding  down  the  Trochus  Niloticus,  so  as  to 
obtain  a  well-polished  transverse  section,  and  another  in 
two  or  three  pieces  tied  together,  making  a  round  smooth 
ring  ;  of  the  former  of  these  five  or  six  are  sometimes  worn 
on  one  arm. 

The  Queen  Conch. — The  S trombus  gigas,  or  fountain-shell 
of  the  West  Indies,  fills  up  the  earlier  whorls  with  solid 
matter,  and  sometimes  weighs  five  pounds.  It  is  a  favourite 
ornament  in  milk-shops  in  consequence  of  the  delicate 
pink  colour  of  the  mouth.  It  is  also  ground  to  powder 
wholesale  for  the  manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds  of  porce- 
lain, 300,000  having  been  imported  into  Liverpool  in  one 
year  from  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  used  chiefly  for  this 
purpose.  One  vessel,  the  Crusader,  brought  home  5000 
of  these  shells  from  Nassau,  New  Providence,  in  the  close 
of  1875. 

The  nacreous  and  iridescent  shells  used  for  inlaying 
and  ornamental  purposes  will  be  spoken  of  in  the  section 
on  mother-of-pearl,  but  these  may  claim  a  few  words 
here.  The  "  green  snail "  of  the  dealers,  the  Turbo 
olearius,  is  very  largely  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 
Slices  of  this  shell,  ground  down  to  a  thin  surface,  are 
.employed  for  covering  or  inlaying  various  articles,  such  as 
'small  stamp-cases,  little  tablet-covers,  fancy  boxes,  baskets 
with  metallic  handles  ;  buttons,  earrings,  and  other  articles 
are  made  of  it,  and  very  pretty  ornamental  stands,  which 


294       '^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

open  with  a  spring,  enclosing  scent-bottles  or  cigar-holders, 
and  such  like.  Fashion  has  brought  into  use,  of  late  years, 
handsome  sections  obtained  from  this  shell,  which  have 
been  largely  used  for  ornamenting  ladies'  hats,  for  buckles 
for  shoes,  sashes,  and  waist-belts.  The  light-greenish 
iridescent  play  of  colour  of  this  shell  is  more  ornamental 
than  that  of  the  true  mother-of-pearl.  Fine  large  shells  of 
this  species  formed  the  drinking  goblets  of  the  Scandina- 
vian monarchs,  and  are  often  still  met  with,  very  elegantly 
mounted  and  set  with  jewels. 

Another  shell  of  this  genus,  the  Turk's  cap  {Turbo 
sarmaticus),  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  is  used  for 
making  small  articles,  such  as  caskets,  scent-bottles, 
brooches,  etc. 

The  ear  shells  of  different  species,  principally  the  green 
kind,  Haliotis  iris,  the  common  British,  Haliotis  tiiberadata, 
and  some  Japan  and  Californian  species,  are  much  used, 
from  their  brilliant  play  of  colour,  ground  down  for  inlay- 
ing papier-mache  work,  as  well  as  for  making  buttons, 
studs,  links,  buckles,  and  earrings.  Among  other  handsome 
species  of  ear  shell,  which  are  polished  for  mere  ornament 
or  trade  use,  are  H,  nifcscens,  H.  splendcns,  and  H. 
cracherodii. 

Sections  of  white  cones,  sufficiently  large  to  go  on  the 
arm  as  a  bracelet,  are  so  much  in  request  in  the  Pacific 
Islands,  that  dealers  in  Europe  obtain  high  prices  for  them. 
Very  often  rare  fluviatile  and  terrestrial  shells  are  obtained 
from  native  necklaces.  One  of  these  necklaces  was  stolen 
from  an  aboriginal  dressed  figure  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  the 
shells  being  worth  to  collectors  several  pounds. 

In  full  dress  many  of  the  Pacific  Islanders  are  decked 
out  with  large  white  Oviduin  shells,  appended  to  the  waist, 
elbows,  and  ankles.     Necklaces  of  Natica  shells  are  also 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     295 

common  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Those  made  from  the 
Elenchiis  ij-isodonta  shell  were  always  held  in  high  estima- 
tion among  the  aboriginal  women  of  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
worn  as  ornaments  round  the  neck  and  head.  Necklaces  of 
these  are  equally  esteemed  now  by  English  ladies  for  their 
beauty  and  rarity. 

The  bright  nacreous  play  of  iridescent  colours,  which 
doubtless  first  recommended  them  to  notice,  were  brought 
out  by  partial  decomposition  and  removal  of  the  cuticle 
from  long  exposure,  after  being  cast  on  the  shore  in  a  dead 
state.  The  natives  effected  the  same  end  artificially  and 
systematically,  by  placing  them  in  a  thick,  dense  smoke 
from  green  vegetable  matter.  Instead  of  "employing  pyro- 
ligneous  acid  thus  accidentally  obtained,  they  afterwards 
came  to  use  vinegar  and  friction  to  remove  the  epidermis, 
and  then  rubbed  them  with  various  fatty  substances  until  a 
brilliant  polish  was  acquired.  They  also  boiled  the  shells 
with  tea  and  other  astringent  substances,  to  deepen  the 
blue-and-green  tints  characteristic  of  the  shells.  They 
made  small  holes  in  the  shells,  by  placing  them  between 
their  eye-teeth  and  giving  them  a  nip,  and  then  strung 
them  upon  kangaroo  sinews.  But  the  last  of  the  aboriginal 
Tasmanians  has  passed  away,  and  no  more  shell  necklets 
thus  prepared  can  be  obtained  of  them. 

In  New  Britain,  San  Christoval,  and  other  islands  east- 
ward of  New  Guinea,  the  fierce  inhabitants  adorn  them- 
selves with  necklaces  of  two  very  beautiful  kinds  of  land 
shells,  both  being  white,  the  one  having  a  golden  yellow, 
and  the  other  a  vermilion  lip.  Throughout  the  islands 
inhabited  by  the  crisp-haired  Papuan  race,  a  large  species 
of  Oviilnm  of  a  very  pure  white  colour,  resembling  porce- 
lain, is  employed  with  great  effect  by  the  natives  in  deco- 
rating their  houses,  temples,  and  canoes.     One  of  the  most 


296       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

striking  and  really  elegant  ornaments  manufactured  out  of 
shells  by  a  half-civilized  race,  is  a  fillet  formed  of  the  nuclei 
or  inner  whorl  of  the  pearly  nautilus,  and  worn  on  the  head 
by  the  Navigator's  Islanders  when  going  to  war  (4,  Fig.  22), 
Each  nucleus  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  external 
coat  being  removed,  so  as  to  exhibit  an  appearance  of  the 
most  highly  burnished  silver.  The  shells  are  fastened  on  a 
mid-rib  of  cocoa-nut  leaf,  supported  and  tied  round  the 


Fig.  22. 


I,  Money  cowry  ;  2.  Ovuluni  angulostim  (sandal-wood  shell)  ;  3.  Denta- 
lium  (money  of  West  Coast  Indians)  ;  4.  Fillet  of  nautilus  shells  (from 
Samoa). 

head  by  a  cord  of  sinnet.  The  pearly  nautili  are  not  found 
at  the  Navigator's  Islands,  but  are  carried  thither  by 
European  traders  from  New  Caledonia  and  Fiji,  where 
they  are  sold  to  the  natives  at  the  rate  of  about  \s.  each. 
Occasionally  many  tons  of  these  shells  are  brought  into  the 
Sydney  market  for  reshipment  to  Samoa.  The  species 
chiefly  employed  in  this  trade  is  the  Nautilus  macrocephalus. 


Indusirial  and  Mantcfacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     297 

Utilization  of  Shells  for  Economic  and  Decorative  Pur- 
poses.— The  next  subdivision — the  use  of  shells  for  spoons, 
drinking-vessels,  lamps,  handles  for  knives,  and  other  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy  or  ordinary  utility — takes  in  a 
very  wide  range. 

The  valves  of  the  Anodonta  esctda  are  used  as  skimmers 
in  Brazil,  and  the  shells  of  the  Ainpullaria  serve  to  dip  up 
the  caoutchouc  gum.  The  Africans  on  the  west  coast 
make  much  use  of  the  large  shells  of  the  Achat ina  snail, 
shaped  into  spoons. 

Shells  are  still  much  used  for  scoops,  spoons,  etc.  In 
many  countries  the  great  melon-shell  and  others  are  employ- 
ed to  bale  out  boats  ;  to  hold  oil  and  a  wick,  suspended  as 
lamps  ;  to  skim  milk  ;  and,  from  some  unexplained  custom, 
shells  seem  a  necessary  ornament  or  appendage  in  the 
window  of  the  milk-shop  or  dairy  in  the  metropolis. 

The  less-civilized  inhabitant  of  coasts  frequently  forms 
his  knife,  his  hunting-spear,  and  his  fish-hook  of  hard 
shell.  In  the  latter  instance  it  serves  the  secondary  pur- 
pose of  a  glittering  bait.  The  Chinese  grind  shells  to 
powder,  and  use  this  powder  in  the  way  we  do  flock  on 
paper-hangings. 

A  small  white  bivalve  shell  (called  Ircgo  by  the  natives 
of  Western  Australia)  is  used  for  sharpening  their  spears 
when  they  cannot  procure  glass. 

The  Friendly  Islander  wears  the  scarce  orange  cowry 
as  a  mark  of  chieftainship.  The  New  Zealander  polishes 
the  Elcnchus  into  an  ear  ornament  more  brilliant  than  the 
"  pearl  ear-drop  "  of  classical  or  modern  times,  and,  with 
the  rainbow-lined,  pearly  interior  of  the  Haliotis  iris,  orna- 
ments the  eyes  of  his  grotesque  images,  and  inlays  the  rich 
carving  of  his  war  canoes  ;  and  he  also  manufactures 
gleaming  fish-hooks  of  the  same  material.     In  the  Solomon 


298       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Islands  the  same  style  of  ornamentation  prevails  ;  but  there 
they  use  the  pearly  coating  of  the  chambered  nautilus,  and 
the  nacre  of  the  pearl  oyster.  Even  the  wandering  savage 
of  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia  delights  in  beautifying 
himself  with  a  spoon-shaped  ornament  filed  from  the 
pearly  nautilus.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  substances  in 
nature  is  the  shell-opal,  formed  of  the  remains  of  the 
ammonite. 

In  Caldera,  Chili,  a  kind  of  scallop  shell,  very  finely 
marked  with  a  delicate  pink,  is  frequently  used  by  the 
refined  portion  of  the  population,  as  a  little  dish  to  hold 
soap  on  the  toilet-table. 

Scallop  shells  {Pecten)  were  formerly  worn  by  pilgrims, 
on  their  hat  or  the  cape  of  their  coat,  as  a  mark  of  their 
having  crossed  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  paying  their 
devotions  at  the  holy  shrine  in  Palestine ;  in  commemora- 
tion of  which  they  are  still  preserved  in  the  armorial 
bearings  of  many  families  of  distinction,  whose  ancestors 
had  performed  that  ceremony.  From  its  use  by  cooks 
now,  this  shell  has  given  the  name  to  "  scalloped  "  oysters. 
In  early  times,  when  plates  and  drinking-vessels  were  not 
so  plentiful  as  they  are  now,  the  concave  or  hollow  valve  ot 
the  scallop  served  as  a  cup,  and  the  flat  valve  for  a  plate. 
The  idea  has  even  been  carried  out  by  our  pottery  manu- 
facturers, and  plates  and  dishes  have  been  moulded  after 
the  forms  of  bivalve  shells.  Reticules,  needle-books,  pin- 
cushions, and  other  articles  are  made  by  shell  dealers  with 
the  scallop  shell. 

The  Mytiliis,  or  mussel  shell,  has  a  few  applications. 
When  polished,  they  are  made  into  pretty  needle-books 
and  scent-bottle  holders,  earrings,  crosses,  pins,  and  pin- 
cushions. They  are  mounted  on  marble  as  paper  weights, 
and  are  used  as  a  receptacle  for  gold  and  silver  paint  for 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     299 

artists.  The  Maories  of  New  Zealand  employ  mussel 
shells  as  tweezers  to  eradicate  the  hair  from  their  face. 

Some  of  the  cockle  shells  are  made  into  pretty  little  pin- 
cushions, and  the  shell-flower  makers  use  them  to  form  the 
hop  and  other  imitations.  Common  cheap  pin-cushions 
are  made  with  the  whelk  and  many  other  shells. 

Large  quantities  of  small  shells  enter  into  trade  use,  for 
making  shell  flowers  and  different  articles  of  grouped 
shells  on  boxes,  etc.  A  great  proportion  of  these  are 
British  shells,  collected  freely  on  the  beach  in  many  parts 
of  our  coasts,  and  most  are  sold  by  dealers  under  the  name 
of  "  grotto  shells." 

The  shells  chiefly  used  for  imitation  flowers  in  forming 
tulips,  moss-roses,  passion-flowers,  anemones,  hops,  etc.,  are 
parts  of  the  valves  of  barnacles  {Lepas  anatiferd),  Dentalimn, 
Oliva  oryza,  Maj'ginella,  Strigella  pisiformis,  Pholas  dactylics 
and  P.papyracea,  Tellinas,  Cardium,  and  others.  It  requires 
only  taste  in  the  selection  and  adaptation  of  suitable  shells 
or  parts  of  shells  to  form  the  petals  of  the  flowers,  and 
colour  is  applied  to  the  shell  where  necessary. 

Mr.  Mayhew,  in  his  "  London  Labour  and  the  London 
Poor,"  tells  us  that  there  are  about  1,000,000  of  the  com- 
moner sorts  of  shells  bought  by  the  London  street-sellers, 
at  3^'.  the  gross.  They  are  retailed  at  \d.  apiece,  or  \.2s. 
the  gross,  when  sold  separately  ;  a  large  proportion,  as  is 
the  case  with  many  articles  of  taste  or  curiosity  rather  than 
of  usefulness,  being  sold  by  the  London  hawker  on  country 
rounds.  Some  of  these  rounds  stretch  halfway  to  Bristol, 
or  to  Liverpool. 

Many  shells  are  used  for  trumpets.  Large  species  of 
the  genus  Biiccimim  are  employed  by  Italian  herdsmen  in 
directing  the  movements  of  their  cattle,  and  a  variety  of 
sonorous  sounds  may  thus  be  readily  produced.     They  are 


300       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

also  often  used  in  North  Wales  by  the  farmers  to  call  their 
labourers,  and  in  Lithuania  and  Muscovy  by  the  herdsmen 
to  assemble  their  cattle.  In  the  West  Indies  the  common 
fountain-shell,  a  species  of  Slroinbus,  is  also  used  to  call  in 
the  negroes  from  the  sugar-cane  fields ;  the  interval  of 
"shell-blow,"  as  it  is  termed,  being  the  dinner-hour.  In 
the  East  Indies  chank  shells  are  used  for  the  same  purpose 
by  the  Brahmin  priests,  and  the  great  Triton  {Trito7t 
tritonis)  is  so  employed  by  the  Pacific  Islanders,  who  make 
a  hole  in  the  lip  and  then  use  it  as  a  speaking-trumpet, 
The  mountain-priests  of  Japan,  according  to  Kaempfer, 
wear  a  kind  of  Bnccimim,  a  smooth  and  white  shell  with 
beautiful  red  spots  and  lines.  It  hangs  down  from  their 
girdle  and  serves  them  as  a  trumpet,  having  for  this  pur- 
pose a  tube  fastened  to  the  end,  through  which  they  blow 
upon  the  approach  of  travellers,  to  beg  their  charity.  It 
sounds  not  unlike  a  cowherd's  horn.  Miirex  colossus  is 
another  shell  often  used  as  a  trumpet. 

In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  there  is  a  powder- 
flask  formed  of  a  Murex  shell,  mounted  in  silver  inlaid  with 
acanthus  ornament  in  niello  work,  probably  of  the  seven- 
teenth or  eighteenth  century,  and  in  the  India  Museum  there 
is  a  powder-flask  made  of  a  Turbo  shell,  mounted. 

Of  late  among  the  curious  uses  to  which  the  Turbo 
and  some  other  shells  have  been  applied  here  is  for  pipe- 
bowls.  Uncivilized  tribes  have  been  before  us  even  in  this 
utilization  ;  for  Adams,  in  his  "  Voyage  of  the  Samarangl' 
tells  us  that  among  the  Bashee  group,  and  more  particularly 
on  the  island  of  Ibayat,  the  natives  form  very  elegant  and 
commodious  pipes  from  different  species  of  shells,  the 
columella  and  septa  of  the  convolutions  being  broken  down, 
and  a  short  ebony  stem  inserted  into  a  hole  at  the  apex 
of  the  spire.     Pipes  of  this  kind  are  formed  from  the  Mitra 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     301 

papalis,  and  others  out  of  Mitra  episcopalis  and  species  of 
CeritJiiinn  and  Tercbra. 

The  beautiful  shell  of  the  Nautilus  ponipilius  is  often 
mounted  on  a  stand,  with  designs  engraved  on  it,  and  used 
for  holding  flowers.  The  shell  of  the  pearly  nautilus  is 
made  into  a  drinking  cup  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  East. 
The  outer  coating  of  the  shell  being  first  removed,  so  as  to 
render  visible  the  pearly  layer,  various  devices  are  often 
engraved  on  it. 

At  the  first  London  International  Exhibition,  a  curious 
specimen  of  patient  toil  was  shown  by  a  working  man 
of  the  name  of  Wood,  in  an  engraved  nautilus  shell  dedi- 
cated to  the  memory  of  Nelson,  the  only  instrument  he 
had  employed  being  a  small  penknife.  On  the  front  was 
represented  the  globe,  with  Britannia  seated  upon  a  lion,  and 
possessed  of  the  usual  emblems  of  sovereignty,  surrounded 
with  a  border  composed  of  oak-leaves  and  acorns  most 
elaborately  engraved.  Upon  each  side  were  a  number 
of  lines  from  Fitzgerald,  commemorative  of  the  victories 
of  Nelson,  so  small,  however,  that  they  almost  required 
the  aid  of  a  microscope  to  decipher  them  ;  and  on  one  side 
of  the  shell  was  a  representation  of  Peace,  seated  on  the 
prow  of  a  vessel,  pointing  to  the  victories  achieved  by 
the  hero.  On  the  other  was  represented  St.  George  and  the 
Dragon.  The  head  of  the  shell  represented  that  of  a 
parrot.  The  designs  were  most  artistic,  and  the  execution 
remarkably  fine.  The  same  ingenious  artist  had  a  short 
time  before  presented  to  her  Majesty  a  similar  shell,  on 
which  were  designed,  with  the  same  rude  graver,  the  royal 
arms,  the  Prince  of  Wales's  feathers,  the  Great  Britain  and 
the  Great  Western  steam-ships,  with  a  full  description  of 
the  same ;  also  several  verses  from  Pope,  amounting  alto- 
gether to   about    1500  words,   which   were   tastefully   en- 


302       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

graved  in  German  text,  old  English,  Roman,  and  italic 
characters.  On  the  occasion  of  presenting  the  shell,  a  sum 
of  money  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the  artist  ;  and  a  few 
days  after,  the  poor  man  was  astonished  by  the  receipt  of 
a  large  packing-case,  which,  upon  opening,  he  found  to 
contain  a  proof  impression  of  Sir  G.  Hayter's  "  Coronation  " 
picture,  framed  and  tastefully  ornamented  with  the  rose, 
shamrock,  and  thistle  in  burnished  and  dead  gold. 

The  Chinese  are  very  fond  of  having  patterns  carved 
on  the  nautilus  shell,  while  the  body  of  the  shell  is  uncoated 
to  show  the  nacre. 

The  shell  of  an  Anodonta  is  used  for  the  bridge  of 
musical  instruments  by  the  Mittoo  tribe  in  Africa,  and 
round  fragments  of  shell  are  used  by  them  for  gambling 
purposes.  In  Japan  the  ladies  play  a  game  with  the  valves 
of  shells  with  painted  designs  on  them. 

Miscellaneous  Products  of  the  Mollusca. — In  China  the 
shells  of  a  great  number  of  molluscs,  inhabitants  of  the 
sea,  river,  or  land,  are  pulverized  and  washed  with  great 
care  to  prepare  an  absorbent  powder,  employed  in  erup- 
tions and  for  toilet  use.  The  valves  of  some  Unios,  of 
Area  granosa,  and  oyster  shells  are  also  calcined  and  pul- 
verized to  prepare  medicines  prescribed  in  fevers,  apoplexy, 
and  haemorrhages. 

Opercula. — Many  species  of  gasteropods  develop  an 
operculum  or  lid  on  a  particular  lobe  of  the  foot.  It  may 
be  composed  either  of  layers  of  horn  or  of  dense  shelly 
substance,  the  principal  office  of  which  is  to  close  the  mouth 
of  the  shell  when  the  animal  retires  within  it.  The 
operculum  always  exhibits  more  or  less  of  a  spiral  deve- 
lopment. In  some  cases  the  spirals  are  numerous  and 
nearly  concentric  ;  in  others,  and  these  the  most  common, 
the  new  matter  is  added  principally  on  one  side,  and  the 


IndiLstrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.     303 

nucleus  is  then  very  eccentric.  The  spirals  are  invariably 
sinistral  in  dextral  shells.  Horny  operculum — Biiccinum 
undatinn;  calcareous — Trochus  diwd  Triton,  Turbo  sarmaticiis, 
T.  marnioratus,  nodosiis,  Cookii,  and  torquatiis.  Some  of  these 
coloured  solid  opercula  have  recently  been  polished  and 
set  as  ornaments  of  jewellery  for  necklets  and  pins,  studs 
and  solitaires. 

The  opercula  of  the  screw  or  stromb  shell,  and  some 
other  species,  were  formerly  officinal  under  the  name  of 
Unguis  odoratiis  or  Blatta  byzantina.  Small  horny  opercula, 
called  Sheitavi  tcrnah,  are  still  used  medicinally  on  the  coast 
of  Syria.  The  operculum  of  the  whirl-wreath  or  Turbo 
cochins  and  other  species  form  the  unibilicics  veneris. 

Dyes  from  Mollusca. — Formerly  some  valuable  dyes 
were  obtained  from  molluscs,  of  which  sepia  and  the  ancient 
Tyrian  purple  dye  are  examples ;  but  the  abundance  of 
mineral,  insect,  and  vegetable  dyes  now  available  renders 
these  valueless  at  present.  Still  a  notice  of  them  is  worth 
attention. 

The  colour  known  as  sepia  among  artists  is  a  liquor 
contained  in  the  ink-bag  of  Sepia  officinalis.  It  is  of  a 
powerful  dusky-brown  colour,  and  works  admirably  in 
water,  being  used  in  making  drawings  in  the  manner 
of  bistre  and  Indian  ink,  but  is  not  applicable  with  oil. 
This  warm  and  sober  colour  has  not,  up  to  the  present, 
been  emplo3'ed  in  the  photographic  impressions  called  "  the 
carbon "  process.  Sepia  is  sold  in  little  bladders,  which 
have  to  be  freed  from  membranes.  This  is  very  easily  done 
by  boiling  it  for  a  moment  in  chloric  acid,  which  destroys 
the  envelope,  and  causes  it  to  become  detached  by  tritura- 
tion with  the  hands  in  water.  The  bag  or  pocket,  being 
light,  floats  and  is  easily  separated  by  filtering.  The  black 
substance  which  remains  is  dried,  after  having  been  washed 
in  hot  water. 


304       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

When  pulverized  fine  enough,  this  colour  is  used  for 
water-colour  drawings  ;  but  its  hardness  makes  it  necessary 
to  mix  with  it  some  foreign  colour  (sienna  or  the  like),  to 
facilitate  the  operation  of  pulverizing. 

By  the  following  method  this  laborious  crushing,  which 
is  always  imperfect,  is  avoided,  and  the  colour  obtained 
very  pure.  One  hundred  and  fifty  grammes  of  potash  or 
caustic  soda  are  put  into  a  capsule  ;  it  is  then  placed  on  the 
fire,  and  when  the  potash  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  100 
grammes  of  the  dry  matter  are  added  gently,  but -keeping  it 
in  motion  until  completely  dissolved.  It  is  then  taken 
from  the  fire,  and  after  a  few  minutes  a  little  water  (the  less 
the  better)  is  added,  and  so  on  until  complete  evaporation. 
During  this  process  an  extremely  strong  ammoniacal  odour 
is  given  off,  and  the  dry  ink  has  become  soluble  in  alkali, 
but  it  is  insoluble  in  water  or  in  acid. 

There  is  great  dispute  as  to  the  precise  source  of  the 
celebrated  Tyrian  purple  dye,  so  much  used  for  the 
garments  worn  by  kings  and  emperors  of  old.  Some 
authors  attribute  it  to  the  rock  lichens  or  orchella  weed 
of  commerce  of  the  present  day,  but  the  general  and  most 
probable  opinion  is  that  it  was  obtained  from  some  species 
of  Miirex  {M.  brandaris  and  triinculus)  and  Purpjtra  {P. 
patida  and  P.  pcrsica),  the  animals  of  which  furnish  a  rich 
colour.  The  small  shells  were  bruised  in  mortars  ;  the 
animals  of  the  larger  ones  taken  out. 

In  Britain  there  are  several  kinds  of  mollusca  which 
furnish  a  dye  of  this  sort.  Helix  JantJana,  which  occurs  in 
the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  South  Seas,  affords  a 
similar  fluid. 

If  the  shell  of  Purpura  lapillus  is  broken,  there  is  seen 
on  the  back  of  the  animal,  under  the  skin,  a  slender, 
longitudinal,  whitish   vein,  containing  a  yellowish  liquor. 


Industrial  and  Manufacturing  Uses  of  Shells.    305 

When  this  juice  is  applied  to  linen,  by  means  of  a  small 
brush,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  it  becomes  green,  blue,  and 
purple,  and  at  last  settles  into  a  fine  unchangeable  crimson. 
Neither  acids  nor  alkalies  affect  its  colour,  and  it  may  be 
conveniently  employed  in  marking  linen  where  an  indelible 
ink  is  desirable. 

Linton,  in  his  work  "  On  Ancient  and  Modern  Colours," 
states  that  the  PiirpicrcB  of  the  best  description  were  chiefly 
found  on  the  rocks  of  Tyre,  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  They 
were  also  collected  at  Mininge  on  the  Graetulan  shore  in 
Africa,  and  on  the  coast  of  Laconia  in  Europe.  The 
colours  varied  according  to  the  locality  in  which  they  were 
taken.  Those  from  Pontus  and  Galatia  in  the  north  pro- 
duced a  black  dye  ;  in  the  equinoctial  regions  a  violet  hue 
predominated  ;  whilst  in  the  south,  as  at  Rhodes,  the  colour 
was  of  a  richer  red.  These  purple  shell-fish  were  called 
Pelagia,  and  they  were  distinguished  by  the  district,  as  well 
as  by  the  food  which  the  locality  supplied.  Two  hundred 
Biiccina  were  added  to  ill  Pelagia  to  make  the  purple 
colour  so  much  eulogized  by  Pliny,  and  one  of  the  three 
shades  of  purple  recorded  by  the  ancients.  To  make  a 
purple  dye,  they  also  mingled  several  varieties  of  shell-fish, 
adding  nitre,  urine,  water,  salt,  and  fuci.  But  the  dye  from 
the  Biiccina  required  only  pure  water. 

Experimental  investigations  in  zoology  showed  that  the 
tint  of  the  purple  varied  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of 
the  haunt  in  which  the  shell-fish  was  found.  Thus,  when 
it  lived  among  seaweeds  or  mud,  the  juice  it  contained 
was  comparatively  worthless ;  when  amongst  pebbles,  its 
quality  was  much  improved  ;  and  it  produced  the  richest 
purple  when  the  food  and  locality  of  the  fish  were  of  varied 
materials.  Researches  carried  still  further  proved  that,  to 
produce  the  richeit  and  most  eqstly  dye  which  art  could 

14 


3o6       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

exhibit,  the  liquid  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  must  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  that  which  was  procured  from 
shell-fish  belonging  to  other  species.  Some  of  the  Tyrian 
garments  had  a  beautiful  play  of  colours,  like  the  shot  silks 
of  our  own  time ;  and  this  play  of  colouring,  it  is  said,  was 
first  suggested  to  them  by  having  observed  a  similar  one 
upon  the  neck  of  a  pigeon.  With  the  destruction  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Tyre,  the  beautiful  art  of  dyeing  this 
peculiar  colour  was  lost  for  centuries,  until  it  was  again 
recovered  by  the  scientific  men  of  our  country  ;  and  the 
discovery  would  probably  have  been  of  much  value  to 
commerce,  had  not  the  use  of  it  been  rendered  unnecessary 
by  another  natural  history  discovery,  viz.,  the  cochineal 
insect.  This  has  been  again  to  a  great  degree  replaced  by 
the  discoveries  of  chemistry  in  the  coal-tar  colours. 

The  Scalaria  clathrus  also  furnishes  a  purple  liquor  of 
considerable  beauty,  but  it  is  destructible  by  acids,  and 
gradually  vanishes  by  the  action  of  light.  The  Planorhis 
Cornells  likewise  yields  a  scarlet  dye,  but  of  still  less 
permanency  than  the  Scalaria,  as  all  attempts  to  fix  it  have 
hitherto  proved  ineffectual. 

In  the  reign  of  Augustus  one  pound  of  wool  dyed  with 
Tyrian  purple  sold  for  about  £'i,6  sterling.  We  need  not 
wonder  at  this  enormous  price  when  the  tedious  nature  of 
the  process  is  considered,  and  the  small  quantity  of  dye 
obtained  from  each  mollusc.  For  50  lbs.  of  wool  the 
ancients  used  no  less  than  200  lbs.  of  the  liquor  of  the 
Miirex,  and  100  pounds  of  that  of  the  Purpura,  being  six 
pounds  of  liquor  to  one  of  wool ;  consequently  the  rich 
Tyrian  purple  fabrics  vied  in  value  even  with  gold. 

Marine  Silk. — Among  the  many  novelties  which  industry 
obtains  from  the  sea,  one  of  the  most  curious  is  the  textile 
product  made  with  the  byssus  of  the  Pmnas  of  the  Mediter- 


Industrial  and  Mamifacturing  Uses  of  Shells.    307 

ranean  — the  fin-shells  or  sea-wings,  as  they  are  termed. 
The  species  are  the  Pinna  nobilis,  etc. 

The  shells,  which  are  in  general  very  fragile,  resemble 
in  form  those  of  the  larger  species  of  mussels,  being  long 

Fig.  23. 


and  tapering,  narrow  at  the  back,  and  gradually  expanding 
to  a  considerable  breadth  towards  the  opposite  extremity. 
There  are  some  20  or  more  species  of  the  genus,  which 
produce  in  large  quantities  a  very  fine  sort  of  silky  byssus 
or  braid.  It  is  called  by  the  fishermen  lana  pinna,  or  fish- 
wool.  These  bivalves  are  provided  with  a  tuft  of  delicate 
fibre,  which  cannot  be  better  compared  than  to  fine  hair 
or  silk,  or  spun  glass  ;  with  this  they  attach  themselves  to 
the  rocks,  living  continually  under  water. 


3o8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  ancients  made  this  an  article  of  commerce,  greatly 
sought  after,  and  the  robes  formed  of  it,  called  "  tarentine," 
were  very  much  in  esteem.  It  is  said  that  the  scarf  of  the 
turban  of  Archytas  was  made  of  this  fibre.  In  the  year 
1754  a  pair  of  stockings,  made  of  it,  were  presented  to 
Pope  Benedict  XV.,  which,  from  their  extreme  fineness, 
were  enclosed  in  a  small  box  about  the  size  of  one  for 
holding  snuff.  A  robe  of  this  material  is  mentioned  by 
Procopius  as  the  gift  of  a  Roman  emperor  to  the  satrap  of 
Armenia. 

Even  in  the  present  day  the  fibre  is  utilized,  but  more 
for  its  rarity  than  anything  else.  The  women  comb  the 
Imta  with  very  delicate  cards,  spin  it,  and  make  from  it 
articles  which  are  much  esteemed  for  the  suppleness  of  the 
fibre,  and  their  brilliant,  burning  gold  lustre. 

A  considerable  manufactory  is  established  at  Palermo  ; 
the  fabrics  made  are  extremely  elegant,  and  vie  in  appear- 
ance with  the  finest  silk.  The  best  products  of  this 
material  are,  however,  said  to  be  made  in  the  Orphan 
Hospital  of  St.  Philomel,  at  Lucca. 

At  the  London  Exhibition  of  1862,  V,  Dessi  Magnetti, 
of  Cagliari,  showed  byssus  of  the  Pintia,  thread,  cravat,  and 
gloves  made  of  it,  and  Mariano  Randaccini  a  shawl  made 
with  it.  At  the  Paris  International  Exhibition,  in  1867, 
Paul  Montego,  of  Asti,  Alessandria,  also  showed  shawls 
made  of  this  byssus. 

A  considerable  number  of  bivalves  possess  what  is 
called  a  byssus,  that  is,  a  bundle  of  more  or  less  delicate 
filaments,  issuing  from  the  base  of  the  foot,  and  by  means 
of  which  the  animal  fixes  itself  to  foreign  bodies.  It 
employs  the  foot  to  guide  the  filaments  to  the  proper 
place  and  to  glue  them  there,  and  it  can  reproduce  them 
when  they  have  been  cut  away.     Reaumur  believed  them 


Industrial  and  ManufactiLrhig  Uses  of  Shells.    309 

to  be  spun  from  a  secretion  in  the  foot.  Poli  thinks  them 
to  be  merely  prolongations  of  tendonous  fibre. 

The  Pinna  possesses  a  machine  as  incontestibly  mecha- 
nical as  a  wire-drawer's  mill.  It  is  provided  with  an  ex- 
ternal member  like  a  finger,  and  this  contains  a  glue,  which 
the  animal  exudes  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  variety  of 
minute  perforations  in  the  lip.  This  glue  or  gum,  as  in 
the  instance  of  the  common  spider  or  the  silkworm,  having 
passed  through  these  apertures,  becomes  threads  of  almost 
imperceptible  fineness  ;  and  these,  when  combined,  com- 
pose the  marine  silk  which  is  so  much  admired  by  the 
Sicilians. 

The  animal  first  attaches  the  extremity  of  the  thread, 
by  means  of  its  adhesive  quality,  to  some  crag  or  pebble 
of  unusual  size ;  and  when  this  is  effected,  the  Pinna, 
receding  from  that  point,  draws  out  the  thread  through 
the  perforation  of  the  extensile  member  by  a  process  which 
Paley,  in  describing  the  similar  operations  of  the  terrestrial 
silkworm,  justly  compares  to  the  drawing  of  wire.  One 
difference  alone  exists  :  the  wire  is  the  metal  unaltered, 
except  in  figure ;  whereas,  in  the  forming  of  the  thread,  the 
nature  of  the  substange  is  somewhat  changed,  as  well 
as  the  form  ;  for,  as  it  exists  within  the  water,  it  is  merely  a 
soft  and  clammy  glue,  the  thread  acquiring,  most  probably, 
its  firmness  and  tenacity  from  the  action  of  the  air  upon 
its  surface  at  the  moment  of  exposure. 

This  byssus  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce 
among  the  Sicilians,  for  which  purpose  considerable  num- 
bers of  Pin7ia  are  annually  fished  up  in  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  depth  of  20  to  30  feet.  An  instrument  called  a 
"  cramp  "  is  used  for  the  purpose.  It  is  a  kind  of  iron  fork, 
with  perpendicular  prongs  eight  feet  in  length,  each  of  them 
about  six  inches  apart,  the  length  of  the  handle  being  in  pro- 


3IO       The  Com7nercial  Products  of  the  Sea.       \ 

portion  to  the  depth  of  the  water  ;  for,  notwithstanding  the 
extreme  delicacy  of  the  individual  threads,  they  form  such 
a  compact  tuft  that  considerable  strength  is  necessary  in 
separating  the  shells  from  the  rocks  to  which  they  are 
attached.  The  tuft  of  silk  is  broken  off  and  sold  to  the 
country  women,  who  wash  it  in  soap  and  water.  They 
then  dry  it  in  the  shade,  straighten  it  with  a  large 
comb,  cut  off  the  useless  root  part  by  which  it  adhered  to 
the  animal,  and  card  the  remainder.  By  these  means  a 
pound  of  coarse  filaments  is  reduced  to  about  three  ounces 
of  fine  useful  thread.  This  is  fabricated  into  various 
articles  for  the  person,  such  as  shawls,  stockings,  caps, 
waistcoats,  gloves,  purses,  etc.  The  web  is  of  a  beautiful 
yellow  brown,  resembling  the  burnished  gold  hue  which 
adorns  the  backs  of  some  splendid  flies  and  beetles. 

A  very  large  mollusc,  the  giant  clam  {Tridacna  gigas), 
found  in  the  seas  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  has  a  byssus 
formed  of  many  tough  threads,  but  slightly  elastic,  spun 
by  the  animal,  or  rather  cast  in  a  mould,  thread  by  thread  ; 
a  gelatinous  fluid  being  secreted  in  a  long  groove  or  canal, 
formed  by  the  foot,  which  in  the  air  rapidly  acquires 
solidity.  When  complete,  the  united  threads  form  a  strong 
cable,  adhering  by  the  other  extremity  to  the  rock  so 
firmly  as  to  resist  the  agitation  of  the  sea,  and  so  tough  as 
to  be  severed  only  by  an  axe.  Marsden  mentions  one 
of  these  shells  which  was  more  than  3  ft.  3  in.  long,  and 
2  ft.  I  in.  wide  ;  and  specimens  have  been  seen  which  had 
attained  the  enormous  length  of  four  feet. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


SEAWEED   AND   ITS   USES. 


Various  uses  of  Seaweed — Seawrack  for  packing  and  upholstery— For  manure 
— Kelp  and  iodine — Carrageen  moss — Seaweed  for  food — Large  employ- 
ment in  China  and  Japan— Gelose — Other  applications  of  seaweed. 

Seaweeds  are  largely  employed   in   Europe  and   the  ex- 
treme East  in  industry,  agriculture,  and  manufactures. 

The  marine  plants  are  of  much  more  importance  than  is 
generally  supposed,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  may 
not  yet  be  further  utilized  to  advantage.  Liebig,  in  his 
"  Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry,"  says,  "  Every  one  knows 
that  in  the  immense,  yet  limited,  expanse  of  the  ocean, 
whole  worlds  of  plants  and  animals  are  mutually  dependent 
upon,  and  successive  to,  each  other.  The  animals  obtain 
their  constituent  elements  from  the  plants,  and  restore 
them  to  the  water  in  their  original  form,  when  they  again 
serve  as  nourishment  to  a  new  generation  of  plants.  The 
oxygen  which  marine  animals  withdraw  in  their  respiration 
from  the  air,  dissolved  in  sea  water,  is  returned  to  the 
water  by  the  vital  process  of  sea  plants  ;  that  air  is  richer  in 
oxygen  than  atmospheric  air,  containing  32  to  33  per  cent., 
while  the  latter  only  contains  21  per  cent.  The  oxygen 
now  combines  with  the  products  of  the  putrefaction  of  dead 
animal  bodies,  changes  their  carbon  into  carbonic  acid, 
their  hydrogen   into  water,  while  their  nitrogen  assumes 


312       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

again  the  form  of  ammonia.     Thus  we  observe  that  in  the 
ocean  a  circulation   takes  place  without  the  addition  oi* 
subtraction  of  any  element,  unlimited  in  duration  although 
limited  in   extent,  inasmuch   as,  in   a  confined  space,  the 
nourishment  of  plants  exists  in  a  limited  quantity." 

We  well  know  that  the  marine  plants  cannot  derive 
a  supply  of  humus  for  nourishment  through  their  roots. 
Look  at  the  great  sea-tangle,,  the  Fuctis  gigantens.  This 
plant,  according  to  Cook,  reaches  a  height  of  360  feet,  and 
a  single  specimen,  with  its  immense  ramifications,  nourishes 
thousands  of  marine  animals  ;  yet  its  root  is  a  small  body, 
no  larger  than  the  fist.  What  nourishment  can  this  draw 
from  a  naked  rock,  upon  the  surface  of  which  there  is  no 
perceptible  change  .-'  It  is  quite  obvious  that  these  plants 
require  only  a  hold — a  fastening,  to  prevent  a  change  of 
place — as  a  counterpoise  to  their  specific  gravity,  which  is 
less  than  that  of  the  medium  in  which  they  float.  That 
medium  provides  the  necessary  nourishment,  and  presents 
it  to  the  surface  of  every  part  of  the  plant.  Sea  water  con- 
tains not  only  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  but  the  alkaline 
and  earthy  phosphates  and  carbonates  required  by  these 
plants  for  their  growth,  and  which  we  always  find  as  con- 
stant constituents  of  their  ashes. 

Seaweeds  or  fuci  are  used  directly  as  manure,  for  the 
manufacture  of  soda,  iodine,  bromine,  and  some  like  Irish 
moss,  etc.,  for  the  manufacture  of  gelose.  Dried  and 
pressed  seaweeds  are  also  used  for  ornamental  or  botanical 
purposes.  In  Scotland  and  other  northern  countries  sea- 
weed is  used  in  winter  for  feeding  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
and  is  eaten  by  deer  when  other  food  is  scarce. 

The  beneficial  effects  in  scrofulous  swellings  and  goitre 
of  the  vegetable  ethrops  and  of  the  sponge  charcoal, 
which  had  been  introduced  by  Armand  de  Villeneuve  near 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  313 

the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  discovery  of 
iodine  in  the  ashes  of  sea  plants,  induced  Dr.  Coindet,  of 
Geneva,  in  18 19  to  study  the  effects  of  iodine,  and  led  to 
the  introduction  of  that  element  into  medicine. 

The  Ficcus  vesicnlosus,  Lin.,  grows  on  rocky  shores  of 
the  Atlantic  on  or  near  high-water  mark.  Formerly  it  was 
known  by  the  name  of  Qiiercics  marina  or  sea-oak,  its 
common  English  names  being  bladder-wrack,  sea-wrack, 
sea-ware,  kelp-ware,  and  black  tang.  Of  late  the  bladder- 
wrack  seems  to  have  been  employed  to  some  extent  medi- 
cinally in  the  United  States.  It  has  also  been  employed 
in  France  in  the  form  of  extract,  by  exhausting  the  plant 
with  54  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

There  are  two  species  in  which  a  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on — a  lichen,  and  the  sea-wrack  or  Zostera 
marina,  vulgarly  known  there  under  the  name  of  "parl- 
leule,"  which  have  become  considerable  sources  of  profit  to 
the  inhabitants.  The  moss  or  lichen  is  used  by  chemists 
and  for  making  gummy  preparations,  and  is  even  for- 
warded to  Belgium.  The  Zostera  marina  is  largely  used 
for  stuffing  beds  and  chairs  by  packers  and  upholsterers, 
under  the  name  of  crin  vegetal — in  England,  "alva."  In 
1873  over  4,100,000  lbs.  of  this  dried  weed  were  sent  from 
Granville  by  land  and  sea.  As  this  quantity  represents 
about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  sale,  the  total  may  be 
approximatively  estimated  at  about  ^^"2,000  in  value.  The 
Zostera  has  the  habit  of  the  seaweeds,  although  belonging 
to  another  natural  order. 

Algae  and  fuci  are  the  scientific  names  given  to  various 
marine  plants  which  grow  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  They 
are  collected  on  the  coasts  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
where  they  are  found  at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  driven 
by  the  currents  and  thrown  on  the  beach  by  the  waves  and 
tides. 


314       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

Many  persons  may  think  it  strange  that  we  should 
occupy  ourselves  with  plants  which  flourish  in  the  sea, 
when  we  possess  so  many  useful  plants  on  the  land.  To 
this  it  may  be  replied  that  very  little  is  known  of  the  con- 
siderable commerce  which  is  carried  on  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  more  especially  in  the  far  East.  Hence  we 
propose  to  publish,  for  general  information,  some  reliable 
details  bearing  upon  this  subject.* 

In  France,  on  the  coasts  of  Normandy  and  Brittany — 
at  Noirmontier  for  instance — large  quantities  of  seaweed 
are  collected.  It  is  generally  the  species  known  to  natu- 
ralists under  the  name  of  Ficcics  cornosiis.  There  large 
numbers  live  entirely  on  the  result  of  the  harvest  of  sea- 
weed they  collect  each  year.  The  seaweeds  are  largely 
employed  for  industrial  purposes.  Upholsterers  and  others 
use  them  for  stuffing  couches,  stools,  etc.,  in  which  they  too 
frequently  are  substituted  for  horsehair.  They  are  used  to 
stuff  mattresses,  especially  beds  for  children,  because  their 
aromatic  odour  keeps  away  insects.  Packers  use  seaweed 
for  wrapping  fragile  objects.  Chemists  obtain  from  them 
a  number  of  valuable  products,  such  as  saline  matters  or 
soda,  chlorides,  sulphates,  silicates,  iodine,  bromine,  etc. 

At  the  last  Maritime  Exhibition  held  in  Paris,  sea- 
weeds were  shown  dyed  various  tints  after  decolouration. 
This  new  application  was  to  replace  paper  cuttings,  the 
price  of  which,  owing  to  numerous  uses,  had  much  advanced. 
The  seaweeds,  after  drying,  are  pressed  into  bales  of  about 
100  kilogrammes.  The  colour  is  brown,  something  like 
dried  tobacco. 

Employment  of  Seatveed for  Mamire. — The  Chinese  and 

*  We  quote  from  an  interesting  article  on  the  uses  of  seaweed,  published  in 
the  "  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  d'Acclimatation  of  Paris  "  for  March,  1878,  by 
M.  E.  Renard. 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  315 

Japanese  from  time  immemorial  have  recognized  the  value 
of  seaweeds  in  agriculture  ;  but  as  the  population  of  those 
countries  became  more  numerous,  and  the  adoption  of  the 
algae  as  a  healthy  food  became  better  known,  they  at- 
tained a  higher  value,  and  their  employment  as  a  fertilizer 
was  to  a  great  extent  replaced  by  other  substances,  espe- 
cially the  excreta  of  towns.  In  Japan  seaweed  is  often 
carried  to  the  slopes  of  mountains  to  form  humus  to 
nourish  trees. 

The  services  rendered  to  agriculture  by  seaweeds  are 
well  known  and  very  important.  Buried  in  the  earth,  they 
are  converted  by  fermentation  into  an  excellent  humus,  of 
great  service  to  plants,  and  the  cultivators  on  the  coasts 
of  many  countries  carry  away  thousands  of  cartloads. 

At  Granville,  in  France,  there  is  a  large  commerce  in 
seaweed.  The  value  of  that  used  for  manure  cannot  well 
be  determined. 

In  France  the  collection  of  seaweed  is  only  allowed  at 
certain  fixed  periods,  while  in  China  and  Japan  it  is  carried 
on  daily.  Still,  the  former  plan  may  have  its  advantages, 
as  it  is  known  that  it  is  in  the  midst  of  this  exuberant 
vegetation  of  marine  plants  many  species  of  shell-fish,  such 
as  mussels,  scallops,  etc.,  live.  It  is  also  the  spawning 
ground  of  a  certain  number  of  fish  ;  and,  finally,  here  the 
young  fry  and  the  Crustacea  find  a  shelter  from  the  voracity 
of  the  large  species  of  fish  with  sharp  teeth,  such  as  the 
congers,  bonitos,  etc. 

The  seaweeds  form  in  the  Atlantic  considerable  banks, 
especially  in  the  part  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream.  There 
ships  pass  through  large  spaces  entirely  covered  with  them. 
Sometimes  the  banks  take  the  form  of  long  serpents,  the 
two  extremities  of  which  cannot  be  seen.  To  these  accu- 
mulations of  plants  the  sailors  give  the  name  of  Neptune's 


3 1 6       The  Commetxial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

gardens  ;  and  the  bunches  of  vesicular  grains  which  sup- 
port these  plants  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  name 
tropical  grapes.  Up  to  the  present  time  these  seaweeds 
have  remained  unutilized,  doubtless  because  of  the  cost  of 
transport. 

Some  of  the  species  of  seaweed  are  richer  in  ash  than 
others.  The  most  generally  diffused  species,  the  Fticiis 
vesiculosus,  or  bladder-wrack,  seems  to  withdraw  the  largest 
amount  of  saline  and  earthy  matters  from  the  sea  water, 
Pereira,  in  analysing  the  ash,  found  in  it  nearly  20  per  cent, 
of  common  salt,  and  11  to  12  per  cent,  each  of  potash, 
soda,  and  lime,  and  24^  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid. 


Fig.  24. 


Varieties  of  Seaweed. 

Fresh  weed  usually  yields  16  per  cent,  of  ash,  or  320 
pounds  to  the  ton  of  weed  ;  and  each  ton  of  ash  would 
yield  18  lbs.  of  phosphates,  iron  and  lime,  38  lbs.  of  potash, 
and  other  mineral  substances,  making  up  a  total  of  164  lbs. 
of  valuable  saline  matter,  or  more  than  one-half  of  the 
whole  ash. 

Valuable  as  are  many  of  these  ingredients  to  plants,  the 
application  of  seaweed  as  a  manure  has  some  remarkable 
properties  which  do  not  appear  to  be  explained  by  analysis. 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  317 

The  weeds  are  largely  used  in  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  a 
price  paid  for  them  far  beyond  their  value  as  indicated  by 
chemical  composition.  As  a  manure  for  potatoes  they  are 
hardly  excelled.  Along  the  coast  of  Cornvyall  they  are 
successfully  used  for  grass,  cereals,  and  roots,  and  for  apple 
orchards,  spread  round  each  tree.  The  broccoli,  which  is 
cultivated  round  Penzance  in  hundreds  of  acres,  knows  no 
other  manure.  From  10  to  20  tons  per  acre  is  the  usual 
quantity  applied.  They  act  very  rapidly,  softening  and 
decomposing  in  the  soil  so  quickly  that  their  effects  are  con- 
fined altogether  to  the  special  crop  to  which  they  are  applied. 

On  the  French  coasts  on  the  littoral  of  the  Channel  the 
collection  of  seaweed  is  carried  on  on  an  extensive  scale. 
It  was  officially  estimated  some  years  ago  at  more  than 
2,ooo,(X)0  cubic  yards  annually,  or  in  weight  about  2,250,000 
tons.  It  is  collected  in  various  ways,  with  a  drag,  by  the 
spade,  by  a  rake  with  long  handle,  etc.,  and  loaded  into 
barges,  carts,  on  donkeys,  etc.  So  important  is  seaweed 
there  considered  as  a  fertilizer,  that  a  work  was  published 
specially  devoted  to  the  subject.* 

The  collection  of  seaweed,  by  cutting  from  the  roots, 
forms  a  considerable  source  of  employment  for  the  poorer 
classes  on  the  coasts  of  Brittany.  It  is  only  permitted  to 
be  carried  on  from  the  period  of  full  moon  in  March  to 
the  full  moon  of  April.  The  collection  of  the  driftweed 
thrown  on  the  shores  is,  however,  prosecuted  all  the  year 
round. 

In  the  Channel  Islands  the  harvesting  of  the  cut  weed 
is  carried  on  at  fixed  times — at  Guernsey  from  July  17th 
to  August  31st,  and  at  Jersey  for  10  days  from  March 
loth  and  June  20th.  About  30,000  loads  are  collected 
annually  at  each  of  the  islands. 

*  "  Etudes  sur  les  Engrais  de  Mer,"  par  J.  Isidore  Pierre.     Paris :   A.  Goin. 


3 1 8       Tlie  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Marine  plants  afford  a  large  revenue  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  kelp  and  iodine.  Kelp  is  prepared  by  burning  the 
dead  weeds  till  they  are  reduced  to  hard,  dark-coloured 
cakes,  in  which  state  it  is  sent  to  market.  Kelp  is  the 
only  commercial  source  for  the  production  of  iodine,  and 
its  immense  value  in  photography  and  in  medicine  has 
given  an  impulse  to  the  manufacture  of  kelp,  which 
renders  it  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  applications 
of  seaweed.  The  average  yield  of  iodine  in  Scotland  from 
a  ton  of  driftvveed  kelp  is  about  five  pounds. 

The  proportion  of  iodine  in  sea  water  appears  to  be 
ver}'  small,  and  it  would  require  more  than  30,000,000 
pounds  of  sea  water  to  furnish  the  marine  ^gas  with  one 
pound  of  iodine. 

The  production  of  kelp  in  the  United  Kingdom 
amounts  to  about  10,000  or  11,000  tons;  the  manufacture 
is  carried  on  in  Ireland,  the  Western  Islands,  and  Orkney 
and  Shetland.  In  France  there  are  many  large  factories 
at  Granville,  Cherbourg,  etc. 

The  manufacture  of  iodine  is  chiefly  confined  to  Great 
Britain  and  France,  for  very  little  is  produced  in  any  other 
countries.  It  was  attempted  on  the  American  coasts  of 
the  Atlantic,  but  the  weed  was  found  to  be  of  too  poor  a 
quality.  The  average  production  of  iodine  is  about  10  lbs. 
to  the  ton  of  kelp,  and  as  it  requires  20  tons  of  wet  weed 
to  produce  one  ton  of  kelp,  the  total  quantity  made  repre- 
sents the  burning  of  400,000  tons  of  seaweed  annually. 
At  the  present  price  the  iodine  produced  is  of,  more  value 
than  the  alkaline  salts,  which  were  the  original  object  of 
the  industry. 

Carrageen  Moss. — One  of  the  best  known  of  the  algae 
in  commerce  is  the  CJicndriis  crispiis,  the  source  of  carrageen 
or  Irish  moss,  which  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  substi- 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses. 


319 


tute  for  size  and  in  brewing.  It  possesses  nutritive,  emol- 
lient, and  demulcent  properties,  and  may  be  employed  in 
the  fqrm  of  a  decoction  or  jelly  in  pulmonary  complaints 
and  other  cases.  Bandoline  or  fixature,  for  stiffening  the 
hair  and  other  purposes,  is  commonly  prepared  from 
carrageen.  The  market  supply  for  England  is  obtained 
from  Clare  and  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  It  used  to  be 
sent  to  the  United    States,  where  it  is  kept  on   sale  by 


Fig.  25. 


I.    Ulva  latissima  (green  sloke).    2.   Chondrus  crispus  (carrageen  moss). 

most  druggists.  But  it  was  soon  found  growing  in  im- 
measurable abundance  along  the  whole  Atlantic  coast, 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Long  Island. 

Comparatively  few  are  aware  of  its  wide  and  varied 
use  in  the  arts,  or  of  the  thousands  of  barrels^  bf  it 
employed  annually  by  manufacturers  of  paper,  cloth,  felt 
and  straw  hats,  etc.,  and  by  brewers.  Carrageen  is  to  be 
found  more  or  less  abundantly  all  along  the  North  Atlantic 


320       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

coast,  ranging  between  low-water  line  and  the  depth  of 
40  feet  or  so  ;  but  as  a  rule  its  fronds,  which  correspond 
to  the  leaves  of  air  plants,  are  so  numerously  inhabited  by- 
small  mollusca  that  they  are  spoiled  for  other  use.  The 
clean-growing  article  seems  to  be  limited  almost  wholly  to 
certain  ledges  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Scituate,  Massa- 
chusetts. Here,  where  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic  dash  with 
full  force  upon  the  rocky  coast,  the  carrageen  groWs  to  per- 
fection ;  and,  wherever  it  escapes  the  spawn  of  mussels  and 
other  shell-fish,  is  gathered  during  the  summer  season  in 
vast  quantities.  The  harvest  begins  in  May  and  ends 
about  the  1st  of  September. 

The  gathering  is  made  in  two  ways — by  hand-picking 
during  exceptionally  low  tides,  and  by  means  of  long- 
handled  iron-toothed  rakes  at  ordinary  tides.  Of  course 
the  work  cannot  be  carried  on  except  in  fair  weather. 
Hand-pulling  is  possible  only  during  the  bi-monthly 
periods  of  spring  tides,  that  is,  when  the  moon  is  full  and 
again  at  new  moon.  At  such  times  high  tides  occur  about 
midday  and  midnight,  and  the  ledges  are  exposed  for  moss 
gathering  morning  and  evening.  The  mossers'  boats  are 
rowed  to  the  rocks  where  the  finest  grades  abound,  and  the 
gatherers  select  with  care  the  growths  that  are  freest  from 
minute  shells  and  other  foreign  matter.  This  portion  of 
the  crop,  if  properly  handled  afterwards,  generally  goes  to 
the  apothecary,  and  fetches  a  price  two  or  three  times  that 
of  the  common  grade.  As  the  tide  rises  the  pickers  are 
driven  to  their  boats,  and  proceed  to  the  outer  moss- 
bearing  rocks,  where  the  rake  is  used,  as  it  also  is  during 
ordinary  low  tides.  Moss  taken  in  this  way  is  not  so  clean 
as  the  hand-picked,  and  is  always  mixed  with  tape  grass, 
which  must  be  removed  during  the  process  of  curing  and 
packing. 


Seaweed  and  its  Uses.  321 

The  preparation  is  the  most  critical  part  of  this  peculiar 
farming.  On  being  brought  to  the  shore  the  moss  is  black 
and  unsightly  ;  it  must  be  bleached  as  well  as  dried.  The 
bleaching  is  effected  by  repeated  wetting  and  drying  in  the 
sun  ;  and,  as  the  moss  is  readily  soluble  in  fresh  water,  the 
bleaching  beds  are  situated  near  the  banks  of  the  salt 
creeks  that  abound  along  the  shore.  After  drying,  the 
moss  is  packed  in  tubs  and  rolled  to  the  water,  where  it  is 
thoroughly  washed,  then  rolled  back  to  the  bleaching  bed, 
to  be  dried  again  in  the  sun.  Five  or  six  such  exposures 
are  usually  sufficient.  On  the  bleaching  ground  the  moss 
is  carefully  spread  and  turned,  and  watchfully  guarded 
against  wetting  by  rajn.  In  this  process  it  changes  from 
black  to  red,  then  to  the  yellowish-white  of  the  perfected 
article.  When  properly  cured  the  moss  is  stored  in  bulk, 
in  shanties,  where,  as  time  permits,  it  is  picked  over  and 
packed  in  barrels.  The  crop  averages  about  500,000  lbs. 
a  year  ;  and,  owing  to  the  brighter  and  more  abundant 
sunshine  of  the  American  coast,  the  moss  has  a  better 
colour  and  is  of  finer  quality  than  the  Irish  product. 

The  principal  useful  seaweeds  occurring  on  the  United 
States  coast  are  the  following  : — 

For  Food. — Chondrns  crispus,  Lyngb.,  commonly  called 
Irish  moss.  It  is  abundant  on  the  New  England  coast, 
particularly  to  the  north  of  Cape  Cod,  growing  just  below 
water  mark.  It  is  gathered  in  large  quantities  at  Hingham, 
Massachusetts,  and  sold  for  making  blancmange,  puddings, 
and  sea-moss  farina.  It  is  also  used  by  brewers  for  clari- 
fying, and  by  calico-printers. 

Scherzymenia  edtdis,  Grev.  Common  dulse,  sold  rough- 
dried  in  the  seaport  towns  of  the  Northern  States  ;  prin- 
cipally eaten  by  sailors  and  children.  That  found  in  the 
American  markets  is  generally  imported  from  the  British 


322       The  Cormnercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Provinces,  although  the  plant  is  very  common  in  New 
England. 

Po7'phyra  vulgaris,  Ag.  Laver  ;  eaten  stewed  in  some 
parts  of  Europe.  It  is  imported  from  China  by  the  Chinese 
living  in  the  United  States,  and  even  by  those  as  far  east 
as  Massachusetts,  although  the  plant  is  common  on  the 
Massachusetts  shore. 

Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.  Common  on  the  New  England 
coast  north  ot  Cape  Cod.  It  is  eaten  in  Scotland,  but  not 
in  the  United  States.  No  doubt,  Euchemia  spiniforme  of 
Key  West,  Gigartma  mammilosa  (often  gathered  by  mis- 
take for  the  true  Irish  moss),  the  Californian  species  of 
Chondrus,  and  some  of  the  species  of  Gracilaria  are  quite 
as  good  for  culinary  purposes  as  the  Irish  moss. 

Other  Uses. — The  sea-lettuce  {Ulva  latissima,  L.)  is 
used  by  owners  of  aquaria  for  feeding  some  of  the  marine 
animals,  particularly  mollusca. 

Many  of  the  seaweeds  are  used  as  fertilizers.  The 
larger  dark-coloured  seaweeds  are  roughly  distinguished 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  shore  as  rock-weeds,  or  those 
furnished  with  small  bladders  or  snappers,  and  kelp.  The 
rock-weed  ot  New  England  is  composed  almost  entirely  of 
three  species  of  Fucus — F.  vesiculosns,  F.  nodosiis,  and  F. 
turcatiis.  The  kelp  of  New  England  is  composed  of  the 
devil's  aprons,  species  of  Laminaria,  the  sea-colander, 
Agariimturneri,  and  Alaria  esculenta.  The  rock-weeds  and 
kelp  are  all  useful  for  manure,  and  are  either  scattered 
over  the  land  and  allowed  to  rot,  or  else  manufactured, 
together  with  other  substances,  into  marketable  fertilizers. 

The  red  seaweed  {Poly sip honia  Harveyi)  is  said  at  times 
to  be  washed  ashore  in  Peconic  Bay  in  such  quantities 
that  it  is  used  as  manure. 

The   great    kelp    of  California    {Macrocystus  pyrifera) 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  323 

forms  entangled  masses,  which  serve  as  natural  break- 
waters on  the  exposed  portion  of  the  Californian  coast. 
The  leaf-blades  of  the  same  plant  are  used  by  sailors  in 
high  southern  latitudes  for  rolling  up  into  cigarettes. 

The  very  long  slender  stems  of  Nercocystis  Liitkeana,  the 
great  bladder-weed  of  the  west  coast,  are  used  as  fishing  lines 
by  the  Indians  of  the  north-west ;  and  lines  made  of  Chorda 
filum  are  employed  similarly  in  Scotland.  The  rough-dried 
stems  oi  Laniinaria  saccharijia,  L.  longifolius,  L.flcxicaiiliSy 
and  other  large  species  of  Laminaria,  under  the  name 
of  "  artificial  staghorn,"  are  used  for  making  handles  to 
knives,  paper-cutters,  and  other  ornamental  purposes.  At 
one  time  an  attempt  w^s  made  to  establish  a  manufactory 
of  buttons  out  of  dried  Laminaria  stems,  at  Marble- 
head  ;  but  the  attempt  was  given  up,  as  the  buttons  did 
not  bear  washing.  The  dry  stems  of  the  Laminarice, 
particularly  the  digitate  species,  as  L.flexicaitlis,  are  used 
by  surgical  instrument  makers  in  the  manufacture  of 
sponge-tents. 

Corallina  officinalis,  L.,  was  formerly  used  in  medicine 
as  a  tonic* 

In  Ceylon  a  common  seaweed  {Sphcerococciis  lichenoides, 
Agardt)  is  much  used  as  food,  and  so  is  another  species 
{Euchemia  speciosd)  in  Western  Australia. 

The  Chinese  import  large  quantities  of  dry  seaweed 
from  Japan,  which  they  use  in  cookery  in  place  of  salt,  and 
also  as  a  vegetable  to  thicken  soups.  It  is  collected  on  all 
the  coasts  of  Jesso,  and  in  the  inland  sea  of  the  environs  of 
Nagasaki  and  Sinonosaka.  It  is  an  important  article  of 
export  at  Nagasaki  and  Hakodate,  the  price  being  from 
two  and  a  half  to  four  dollars  the  picul,  or  \Qs.  to  \6s.  for 
one  and  a  half  cwt. 

*  Baird's  Report  on  Fisheries. 


324      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  Chinese  "  Herbal  "  mentions  various  species  of  sea- 
weed as  possessing  strong  and  well-known  therapeutic  pro- 
perties, and  of  special  value  in  the  dispersion  of  hard 
tumours, — goitre,  for  example.  They  have  long  been  ac- 
quainted with  the  general  virtues  of  the  various  species  of 
Laminaria,  and  these  varieties  are  mentioned  as  occurring 
along  the  coasts  of  the  Eastern  Sea,  the  coast  of  Corea, 
and  the  Malayan  Archipelago.  The  great  "  Herbal " 
speaks  of  seven  chief  species.  The  people  in  the  maritime 
provinces  of  China  eat  .seaweed  plentifully,  both  medici- 
nally and  as  a  vegetable  food,  besides  using  it  as  a 
manure  ;  in  this  custom  resembling  the  inhabitants  of  our 
own  Hebrides.  It  is  prescribed  alone,  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  tincture,  its  saltish  taste  having  been  first  washed  away, 
or  it  is  mixed  up  with  other  medicines  in  various  pre- 
scriptions. The  uses  to  which  the  different  kinds  of  sea- 
weed are  put  correspond  with  our  own  before  the  discovery 
of  iodine. 

In  the  midst  of  the  large  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  etc.,  and  the  thousands  of  islets  known  under  the 
geographical  denomination  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the 
seaweeds,  favoured  in  their  growth  by  the  warm  water  of 
the  tropics,  flourish  in  abundance. 

The  Malays  collect  certain  species  which,  boiled  down, 
produce  a  glue  or  kind  of  gdosc,  known  under  the  name 
of  agar-agar,  and  of  which  China  uses  a  large  quantity. 

In  lower  Cochin  China,  the  part  most  fertile,  and 
which  belongs  to  France,  they  collect  the  algae,  to  which 
they  give  the  generic  name  of  raic-cau,  which  is  synony- 
mous with  "  marine  pot-herbs."  They  are  collected  princi- 
pally on  the  rocky  parts  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Siam,  the  islands  of  Pho-Cok,  Poulto-Condor,  and, 
in  fact,  all  along  the  indented  coasts  traversed  at  a  short 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  325 

distance  by  the  steamers  which  quit  Saigon  for  Tonkin  and 
China. 

There  is  another  species  of  algae  which  has  not  the 
same  utiHty,  but  which  has  a  certain  relative  importance, 
as  it  is  used  medicinally,  being  administered  to  patients 
in  different  forms  of  drugs,  cataplasms,  moxas,  etc.  This 
species  is  called  hai-toc,  or  "  beard  of  the  rocks."  It  has  a 
fine  green  colour.  The  filaments  are  very  slender,  and  are 
agitated  in  the  manner  of  a  fish's  tail  by  the  least  move- 
ment of  the  water.  The  large  and  immense  roadstead  of 
Touranne  contains  great  quantities.  This  hai-toc  is  found 
at  shallow  depths,  attached  by  preference  to  old  pieces  of 
wood,  piles,  etc.  / 

The  Annamites  designate  the  gelatine  obtained  from 
seaweeds  by  the  name  of  tao.  The  Malays  call  it,  as 
already  stated,  ^agar-agar.  It  is  not  prepared  with  the 
same  care  as  in  China  and  Japan,  and  is  only  shipped  to 
China,  in  consequence  of  its  low  price. 

The  Annamites  give  the  name  of  raii-caii  to  several 
species  of  algae  [Cojifei'va  coi'allina,  Gelidunn  spiniforme,  etc.) 
which  they  collect  from  the  rocks  on  the  islands  of  Cu-lao- 
Khai  (province  of  Binh  Thuan)  and  Cu-lao-re  (province  of 
Quang-ngai).  They  are  known  in  Chinese  medicine  under 
the  name  of  hai-thao. 

Fifteen  hundred  grammes  of  raii-caii  yield  about  two 
litres  of  seaweed  jelly,  which  is  much  used  for  food  pur- 
poses, after  adding  sugar,  spirit,  or  other  flavouring  to  suit 
the  palate.  This  jelly  also  serves  to  make  the  gclose,  or  sea- 
weed isinglass,  which  has  been  popularly  employed  of  late 
years  in  France  for  culinary  purposes,  by  confectioners,  for 
sizing  fabrics,  and  for  preparing  gold-beater's  skin.  The 
best  seaweed  is  obtained  from  the  island  of  Cu-lao-re. 
The  first-quality  gelose,  known  as  raii-can-chon-vit,  is  white 


326       The  CojJimej'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

and  transparent,  and  costs  £2  the  picul  of  133  lbs.;  the 
second  quality  is  only  about  half  this  price.  The  product 
obtained  in  Cu-lao-Khai  is  very  inferior. 

Seaweeds  enter  also  ■  into  the  food  products  of  the 
Cochin  Chinese.  They  whet  the  appetite  with  them  when 
highly  seasoned  with  garlic,  mixed  with  fish  water ;  and 
they  form  the  celebrated  sauce  "Noachman,"  of  a  strong 
and  repulsive  odour,  which  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the 
far  East. 

China,  with  its  immense  seacoast,  estimated  to  be  not 
less  than  800  leagues  in  length,  is  very  favourable  for  the 
collection  of  seaweed,  which  grows  in  great  abundance  in 
the  sea  ;  but  the  enormous  demand  for  so  numerous  a 
population  requires  that  the  fishing  should  be  carried  on 
daily  and  without  ceasing.  This  naturally  tends  to 
diminish  the  quantity  obtained. 

The  collection  or  fishery  is  carried  on  in  small  boats 
with  sails  of  platted  reeds.  It  is  prosecuted  from  the  island 
of  Hainan  up  to  the  Gulf  of  Petcheli,  as  well  as  the  islands 
of  Formosa,  Chusan,  Lieou  Keou,  etc.  These  little  boats, 
manned  frequently  by  an  entire  family,  occupy  themselves 
not  only  in  the  fishing  of  seaweed,  which  they  detach  from 
the  rocks,  but  in  the  intervals  obtain  fish  by  large  bait  sus- 
pended from  a  bamboo  pole,  maintained  perpendicularly 
by  a  line  below.  The  continued  movement  of  the  bait  by 
the  waves  renders  the  fishing  very  successful. 

The  second  quality  of  algae  is  obtained  in  a  less 
tedious  and  difficult  manner,  by  means  of  hurdles  formed 
of  branches  of  bamboo ;  they  are  the  kind  of  fascines 
which  the  navigator  notices  in  the  creeks  of  rivers  and 
islands,  on  the  beaches  and  in  the  roadsteads,  as  well  as  the 
embouchures  of  all  the  great  rivers  where  the  tides  reach  a 
certain   elevation.     The   seaweeds,  borne   by   the   passing 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  327 

waves  at  high  water  over  these  obstructions,  are  left  behind 
when  the  tide  falls. 

One  cannot  be  surprised  at  the  large  and  important 
consumption  of  seaweed  for  food  by  the  people,  when  we 
consider  that,  besides  the  quantities  collected  on  their  own 
coasts,  the  junks,  the  sailing  vessels,  and  steamers  bring 
from  Japan  to  China  thousands  of  tons  annually,  to  the 
ports  of  Shanghai,  Tient-sin,  Neuchang,  etc.  These  bales, 
transferred  to  boats,  are  carried  up  the  Yang-tse-kiang  to 
the  most  distant  towns  of  the  empire,  such  as  Ho-nan  and 
Setchuen,  and  even  to  Thibet. 

For  food  purposes  the  seaweed,  as  in  Cochin  China 
and  Japan,  is  mixed  in  soups,  with  rice,  fish,  and  vegetables 
in  general,  and  forms  the  celebrated  cabbage  pak-soeij,  or 
pe-tsay  in  mandarin  language. 

The  seaweeds  not  only  communicate  to  food  the  salt 
with  which  they  are  naturally  impregnated,  which  is  a  great 
economy  for  the  poorer  classes,  who  have  to  pay  dear  for  it 
the  further  they  are  removed  from  the  salines,  but  also  a 
certain  aromatic  flavour  of  the  sea,  which  resembles  the 
taste  of  dried  and  fermented  fish,  so  much  in  use  among 
the  numerous  populations  of  the  extreme  East. 

The  English  give  to  the  seaweed  geiose  the  name  of 
isinglass,  and  the  people  of  Canton  call  it  toiv-kao,  while 
the  jelly  in  a  liquid  state  they  call  gJiu-kao. 

This  isinglass  of  the  first  quality  is  made  in  the  form  o 
filaments.  The  gelatine  made  with  it  is  white  and  trans- 
parent, and  is  employed  in  a  number  of  industries.  It 
is  used  by  bakers  and  pastry-cooks  for  making  biscuits, 
macaroons,  and  confectionery ;  by  paper-makers  ;  in 
stifTening  the  light  and  transparent  gauzes,  in  the  fine  silk 
which  is  used  for  making  fans,  screens,  hangings,  etc.  It  is 
on  these  stuffs,  so  well  stiffened,  that  the  painters  product 


328       The  Commercial  P^'oduds  of  the  Sea. 

such  beautiful  designs  in  colours  incomparable  for  their 
freshness  and  brilliancy. 

The  second  quality  of  this  seaweed  isinglass  is  of  a 
darker  tint,  and  consists  of  the  deposit  in  the  basins  in 
which  the  cooking  has  been  carried  on.  It  is  used,  like  the 
liquid  paste  obtained  from  it,  by  makers  of  paper  umbrellas 
and  parasols,  and  paper  lanterns,  to  smear "  the  fine 
stretchers  of  bamboo  on  which  they  are  formed.  When 
thoroughly  dried,  these  articles  of  such  extensive  use 
acquire  an  impermeability  of  long  duration.  But,  unfor- 
tunately, predatory  insects  are  very  fond  of  this  size,  and  a 
single  night  frequently  suffices  to  destroy  these  articles, 
exceedingly  cheap  and  highly  useful  to  all  the  Chinese.  At 
Canton,  as  at  Yokohama  and  Osaka,  we  find  transparent 
sheets  of  gelatine  made  with  this  seaweed  product,  which 
are  superior  to  those  of  European  manufacture,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  not  affected  by  the  action  of  heat  or  moisture. 

The  seaweed  isinglass  of  Japan  is  a  gelatine  as  light  as 
the  pith  of  the  elder.  It  has  neither  odour  nor  flavour.  It 
is  made  by  macerating  and  boiling  down  different  kinds  of 
seaweed,  principally  the  Lammaria.  The  leaves  are  grated 
with  sharp  cutting  instruments,  Vv'hich  cause  the  green 
outer  bark  and  saline  particles  to  deposit. 

The  seaweed  is  then  boiled  slowly  fpr  about  18  hours, 
and  the  mass  left  to  cool,  when  it  looks  like  fish-glue.  The 
upper  portion,  which  is  the  best  quality,  is  turned  out  on 
boards  to  dry. 

The  gelose  of  commerce,  or  Japan  isinglass,  is  also 
obtained  from  Gelidmm  spiniformc,  and  is  made  in  the  form 
of  small  sticks,  transparent,  but  of  a  rough  aspect.  Steeped 
in  cold  water,  it  swells  considerably  without  dissolving.  It 
dissolves,  on  the  contrary,  readily  in  boiling  water,  and  forms 
a  jelly  on  cooling.     It  is  this  property  which  has  rendered 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  "       329 

it  a  food  substance.  After  adding  sugar,  liqueurs,  or 
aromatic  flavourings,  it  is  strained  through  a  cloth  and  put 
into  moulds.  Gclosc  is  also  employed  for  various  indus- 
trial purposes. 

Under  the  name  of  mat,  Porphyra  vulgaris,  reduced  to 
a  jelly  by  boiling,  is  also  used  like  gelose  for  food  by  the 
Annamites. 

The  marine  plants  which  are  employed  as  food  and  in 
different  industries  in  Japan  are  the  following  : — 

The  Ama-//cr/  {Porphyra  vulgaris),  which  is  found  on 
the  coasts  of  different  provinces.  The  best  is  that  which 
is  collected  at  Sinagowa,  in  the  Gulf  of  Yedo,  province  of 
Musashi. 

The  ivakame  {Alaria  pinnatifida),  which  is  met  with 
on  nearly  all  the  coasts  of  Japan.  It  is  simply  dried  and 
sent  into  commerce. 

The  komboii  {Laminaria  saccharina),  which  is  one  of 
the  principal  products  of  Hokkaido.  It  is  eaten  in  dif- 
ferent ways  :  boiled,  broiled,  or  dried  and  reduced  into 
straight  or  quadrangular  strips.  It  is  largely  exported  to 
China. 

Arame  {Capea  elongata)  is  found  principally  in  the  seas 
to  the  south  of  Japan.  When  dried  it  will  keep  a  long 
time.  In  former  times  this  plant  rendered  great  service  to 
the  people  during  a  famine  which  desolated  the  country. 

The  hljiki  [Cystosnra)  is  met  with  also  in  the  same 
seas,  and  includes  two  varieties,  one  short  and  the  other 
long.  It  is  dried  for  use.  That  which  comes  from  the 
province  of  Isi  is  the  most  esteemed. 

Aw'o-noi'i  {Emterojnorpha  coinpressa)  comes  from  the 
same  quarter ;  that  of  the  province  of  Awa  is  considered 
the  best. 

Tenkusa,  or  Tokora  tenkusa  {Gelidium  cornemn),  is  col- 
15 


330       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

lected  in  the  seas  of  the  different  provinces  of  Japan.  It  is 
dried  after  having  been  first  well  washed  in  fresh  water. 
When  it  is  to  be  eaten,  the  dry  seaweed  is  plunged  in 
boiling  water  and  dissolved.  The  liquid  is  then  filtered, 
to  separate  any  foreign  matters,  and  left  to  cool.  It  solidi- 
fies, and  is  then  easily  cut  up  into  pieces  at  will.  It  is 
eaten  generally  in  hot  weather. 

There  is  another  mode  of  preparation,  v/hich  consists  in 
exposing  the  jelly  to  the  intense  frost  of  a  winter's  night. 
It  congeals  and  hardens,  and  then  bears  the  name  of 
"  kantcii"  and  may  be  kept  till  the  following  summer.  It 
is  employed  for  making  pastry,  and  cooks  use  it  for  pre- 
paring certain  dishes.  Besides  its  alimentary  uses,  this 
seaweed  serves  to  make  paper  and  many  other  things. 

Hondazvara  {HalocJiloa  DiacrantJid)  is  found  on  the  sea- 
coasts  of  many  provinces.  It  is  salted  and  eaten  with 
vinegar. 

Tosaka-nori  {Kallimeiiia  dentatd)  takes  its  popular 
name,  Tosaka,  from  its.  resemblance  to  a  cock's  comb. 
It  is  found  principally  in  the  seas  to  the  south  and  east  of 
Japan. 

Fwiori  {Glacopeltix  intrictd)  is  found  on  the  coasts  of 
many  provinces.  It  is  found  in  commerce  in  the  dr^'  state. 
When  boiled  and  made  into  size,  weavers  use  it  to  stiffen 
their  thread.  In  ceramic  work  it  is  also  employed  for 
painting  on  porcelain  ;  it  has  also  many  other  uses.  That 
which  comes  from  the  island  of  Hachijo  and  the  province 
of  Satsuma  is  considered  theiDest. 

Another  larger  marine  plant,  called  tsnnoviata  {Gimno- 
gongrus  pinnatatus),  serves  for  the  same  uses. 

S6men-;/^r/  {Nemaliofi  vermicular ia)  is  collected  in  the 
interior  sea  of  Shitoku  ;  it  is  eaten  salted,  but  can  be  dried 
in  the  ashes  so  as  to  keep  it. 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  331 

Matsuba-«<?r/  takes  its  popular  name  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  leaves  of  the  Matsuba  pine.  It  is  good  to 
eat. 

Ok\\.s\x-7iori :  of  this  there  are  two  varieties,  a  large 
and  a  small.  It  is  dried  after  being  well  washed  in  soft 
water. 

Of  mini  {Codiinn  tomentosuin)  there  are  many  varieties, 
as  the  nagamiru,  hir amine,  etc.  ;  the  first  named  comes 
from  the  province  of  Avva,  the  second  from  Satsuma.  It 
is  eaten  raw  or  salted,  and  may  also  be  kept  by  drying  it 
in  ashes. 

Suizin-w^rz  {PJiilledenim  sacrum)  is  one  of  the  famous 
products  of  Hiya  ;  it  appears  in  commerce  in  the  form  of 
thick  dried  leaves. 

Moziiku  {Mesoglara  discipicns)  is  obtained  in  the  seas 
to  the  south  and  east  of  Japan.  It  is  eaten  raw,  flavoured 
with  vinegar,  or  dried  and  preserved.  That  which  is  held 
in  the  highest  reputation  comes  from  the  province  of  Awa. 

Japan  is  certainly  the  most  favoured  country  where 
these  seaweeds  thrive  with  greatest  luxuriance  and  abun- 
dance, and  where  the  population  carry  on  the  fishery,  and 
the  collection  every  year  is  most  considerable  and  pro- 
ductive. 

It  could  scarcely  be  otherwise.  The  territory  of  Japan 
is  formed  of  four  principal  large  islands,  Niphon,  Yesso, 
Sikok,  and  Kiusiu  ;  its  superb  sea  commences  a  short 
distance  from  Nagasaki,  bathes  the  numerous  territories  of 
powerful  daimios,  and  extends  up  to  the  banks  of  the 
grand  and  populous  town  of  Osaka,  with  its  numerous 
canals,  termed  by  strangers  the  Venice  of  Japan.  If  we 
add  the  1800  or  2000  islands  and  islets  which  we 
find  in  the  Sea  of  Japan,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the 
inland  sea,  we  have  some  idea  of  the  harvest  pbtaijiecj  by 


332       The  Commercial  Prodticts  of  the  Sea. 

an  incessant  fishery  for  these  marine  plants,  as  well  as  for 
fishes,  Crustacea,  mollusca,  polypi,  etc. 

It  is  in  some  of  these  deep  seas,  with  submerged  earth, 
the  effect  of  the  action  of  formidable  volcanos,  dreaded  by 
mariners,  that  is  found  flourishing  a  much-appreciated 
genus  of  algse,  the  Lajninaria.  These  often  attain  ex- 
traordinary dimensions  ;  some  have  been  measured  500 
yards  in  length.  This  fucus  is  naturally  detached  from 
its  holding  ground  when  it  reaches  maturity,  and  its  spongy 
nature  brings  it  to  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

The  Japanese  do  not  gather  the  seaweed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Chinese.  In  place  of  the  fascines  or  hurdles 
already  described,  they  drive  large  bamboos  into  the 
foreshore  or  beach,  which  extends  out  a  great  distance  into 
the  sea. 

On  approaching  Yedo,  the  capital,  numerous  stems 
of  bamboo  may  be  seen  sunk  deep  into  the  sand,  and 
disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  the  seaweed 
to  enter  when  carried  on  by  the  waves  at  high  water. 
Once  entered,  shaken  and  tossed  about  for  many  hours, 
the  long  and  solid  lengths  get  entwined  and  twisted  about 
the  posts,  and  when  the  water  retires  they  are  left  dry  at 
low  tide.  Then  carts  begin  to  arrive  in  great  numbers, 
and  the  scene  is  most  remarkable  and  peculiar  in  its  cha- 
racter. The  people  of  the  shores,  so  numerous,  hurry 
down  to  the  beach — men,  women,  and  children.  They  push 
each  other  aside,  and  scramble,  with  loud  voices  ;  for  the 
first  who  arrives  has  the  best  chance  of  collecting  the 
treasures  left  by  the  sea,  such  as  seaweeds,  Crustacea,  shells. 
When  the  tide  rises  and  the  waves  pour  in,  the  people 
return  to  their  dwellings,  situated  in  long  lines  on  the 
banks.  The  collection  made  during  the  day  is  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  wind  to  dry.     The  women  are  occupied  in 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  '^'^'^y 

sorting  the  weed.  They  chop  the  leaves  off  with  a  knife, 
cut  them  into  fine  strips,  and  heap  them  up  into  piles, 
which  have  the  appearance  of  a  heap  of  moss,  all  which 
occupies  much  time. 

Thus  prepared,  these  seaweeds  are  the  most  sought  after 
for  food  purposes.  The  common  seaweeds,  after  drying, 
are  formed  into  ballots,  or  small  bales,  by  the  men,  and  tied 
up  with  some  of  the  stems,  which  are  of  great  strength. 
These  are  then  transported  either  to  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages situated  a  long  way  from  the  coast,  or  shipped  in 
vessels  to  China. 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  at  some  future  day, 
when  our  clever  European  cooks  have  at  their  disposal 
good,  fresh,  and  young  sprouts  of  certain  species  of  algae, 
they  will  succeed  in  preparing  useful  dishes,  which,  in 
winter  especially,  will  render  signal  service  to  the  poorer 
classes  when  fresh  vegetables  are  scarce.  Again,  seaweeds 
cooked  and  cut  in  thin  slices,  prepared  as  a  salad,  would 
be  a  simple  and  novel  preparation.  Prepared  in  the 
manner  spinach  is  done  in  France,  or  with  some  sauce, 
which  would  remove  the  salt-water  flavour,  they  would 
form  a  dish  appreciated  by  all. 

In  Japan,  as  we  have  seen,  several  kinds  of  seaweed  are 
used  as  food,  and  form  important  articles  of  the  trade  with 
China.  Generally  they  are  natural  products,  which  have 
only  to  be  collected  ;  but  in  certain  cases  their  growth  is 
increased  by  some  ingenious  contrivance,  devised  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  their  development  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Tokio,  where  the  water  is 
shallow,  long  rows  of  branches  of  the  Qucrais  serrata, 
Thun.,  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea  during  spring. 
In   June  or  July,  small  buds  of  a  reddish  colour  appear 


334       '^^^^  Co77tmercial  Prodtids  of  the  Sea. 

upon  the  branches  ;  two  or  three  months  later,  they  have 
grown  into  soft  round  leaves,  apparently  similar  to  stems, 
and  several  inches  in  length.  These  stems  now  rapidly 
flatten  out  at  the  ends  into  broad  leaves,  which  are  taken 
ofif  every  alternate  day  all  through  the  winter,  until  the  end 
of  March.  At  this  period  they  become  hard,  unfit  for  use^ 
and  fall  off  during  the  summer  months.  The  quality  of  this 
seaweed  depends  very  much  on  the  weather,  and  is  best 
when  frequent  rains  and  falls  of  snow  have  rendered  the 
shallow  water  more  or  less  brackish.  Too  large  a  propor- 
tion of  sweet  water  is  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  A  century  or  two  ago  it  was  gathered  in  large 
quantities  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sumidagawa,  near 
Asakusa  in  Tokio  ;  but  as  the  river  carried  down  with 
it  a  large  quantity  of  gravel,  its  mouth  advanced  more 
and  more  into  the  sea,  and  the  water  near  Asakusa  be- 
coming too  fresh,  the  plant  disappeared.  Owing  to  this 
circumstance,  the  above-described  mode  of  cultivation  was 
instituted  ;  the  weed,  however,  has  preserved  its  former 
name  of  Asakusa  nori.  The  branches  oi  Qiicrais  scrrata,  on 
which  the  weed  grows,  are  said  to  answer  their  purpose 
during  three  years  ;  after  that  time,  however,  the  bark 
comes  off,  and  the  weed  does  not  grow  any  more. 

Large  shipments  of  ciimboo  or  seaweed  are  annually 
made  from  the  port  of  Hakodate,  to  the  value  of  about 
;^i6,ooo.  It  is  divided  into  three  sorts — the  best  coming 
from  Shimani  and  Yokadsu,  the  second  quantity  from 
Akish,  and  the  third  from  Kusudu.  This  article  appears 
in  the  Hakodate  market  throughout  the  whole  year,  with 
the  exception  of  the  winter  months  ;  and  has  two  crops, 
the  first  from  September  to  December,  and  the  other  from 
May  to  August.  There  is  a  good  business  also  carried  on 
with   seaweed   to    China  from  Nagasaki    and    Kanagawa, 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  335 

about  80,000  cwt.  being  shipped  annually  from  these  two 
ports.     At  Shanghai  the  imports  reach  about  170,000  cwt. 

The  trade  in  Japanese  seaweed  has  year  after  year  been 
assuming,  more  ample  dimensions  in  China.  It  is  princi- 
pally made  use  of  by  the  poorer  classes. 

A  very  interesting  product,  called  kaiitcn  or  vegetable 
isinglass,  a  species  of  gelose  derived  either  from  Gelidium 
corncnm,  or  Plocaria  lichenoides,  is  made  in  China  and 
Japan,  and  has  been  imported  into  this  country,  in  the 
shape  of  flat  and  moulded  square  tablets  and  in  bundles  of 
strips,  under  the  name  of  seaweed  isinglass.  It  is  known  in 
Cochin  China  as  hai  t/iao,  and  has  been  used  in  France 
in  several  industries,  especially  in  preparing  gold-beater's 
skin,  and  for  rendering  tissues  impermeable.  It  is  only 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  it  takes  up  about  500  times 
its  own  weight  of  the  fluid. 

The  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows  ; — The  seaweed 
called  tcngusa  is  carefully  washed  and  afterwards  boiled, 
so  as  to  form  a  gluish  decoction,  which  is  strained  off 
and  put  into  square  boxes.  When  cooled,  it  forms  a  stiff 
jelly,  Avhich  can  easily  be  divided  into  squares  of  a  foot  in 
length. 

The  manner  in  which  the  surplus  water  is  removed  is 
most  ingenious,  and  worthy  of  notice.  The  jelly  prisms 
are  exposed  in  the  open  air  during  a  cold  night,  and 
allowed  to  freeze.  During  the  day  the  sun  melts  the  water, 
which  runs  off,  leaving  behind  what  one  might  term  tlie 
skeleton  of  a  white  horny  substance,  which  is  extremely 
light,  and  easily  diluted  in  hot  water ;  when  cooled,  it  again 
forms  a  stiff  jelly.  This  article,  which  is  already  to  a 
certain  extent  known  in  Europe,  can  be  applied  to  mary 
uses,  viz.,  for  cooking  purposes,  for  making  bonbons  and 
jellies,  for   clarifying   liquids,  as   a   substitute   tor   animal 


336       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

isinglass,  for  making  moulds  used  by  the  plaster  of  Paris 
workers,  for  hardening  the  same  material — in  short,  as  a 
substitute  for  all  kinds  of  gelatines,  over  which  it  has  the 
advantage  of  producing  a  firmer  jelly. 

Another  seaweed,  much  used  for  industrial  purposes, 
is  the  fu,  resembling  the  carrageen  moss,  and  applied  to 
similar  uses,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  sizing  of  the  warp  of 
silk  goods. 

Seaweed  is  not  much  used  for  food  purposes  in  Europe. 
In  Ireland,  dulse  {RJiodouienia  pabnatd)  is  either  eaten  with 
butter  and  fish,  or  boiled  in  milk  with  rye  flour.  The  Ulva 
tatissijna,  or  green  laver,  and  the  Porphyra  vulgaris,  or 
purple  laver,  are  abundant  on  the  British  shores,  and  when 
boiled  and  served  with  pepper,  butter,  and  vinegar,  form  an 
agreeable  delicacy  to  many  persons  when  eaten  with  cold 
meat.  The  London  shops  are  supplied- with  it  from  the 
Devonshire  coast.  In  Ireland  it  is  known  as  "  sloke." 
"  Tangle,"  which  is  the  young  fronds  oi Laminar ia  digitata, 
is  much  eaten  in  Scotland  ;  and  at  one  time  the  cry  of 
"  dulse  and  tangle  "  was  as  common  in  the  streets  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  as  that  of  watercresses  is  in  London  at 
the  present  day. 

Miscellaneous  Uses  of  Seaivccd. — Various  attempts  have 
been  made  from  time  to  time  to  manufacture  paper  from 
seaweed,  but  they  have  not  been  attended  with  any  very 
great  success. 

In  1820  a  patent  was  granted  in  Denmark  for  making 
paper  from  seaweed,  which  was  alleged  to  be  whiter, 
stronger,  and  cheaper  than  other  kinds.  In  1828  a  patent 
was  taken  out  in  the  United  States,  by  Elisha  Collier,  for 
making  paper  from  Ulva  marina.  In  1833  a  patent  was 
granted  in  France  to  Monsieur  Tripot  for  making  paper 
from  seaweed.     In    1875   two   English  patents  were  pro- 


Seaweed  and  its   Uses.  2>Z1 

visionally  registered  for  making  paper  from  seaweed,  but 
these  were  never  proceeded  with. 

Monsieur  J,  E.  Brizot,  of  Toulon,  states  that  to  prepare 
paper  from  seaweed,  it  is  necessary  to  pound  the  root  part 
of  the  algae,  to  break  off  a  kind  of  fibrous  outer  coating 
which  does  not  bleach  effectually.  It  is  then  washed  to 
remove  the  sand  and  earth  which  are  often  found  adhering, 
and  beaten  \yell,  after  which  it  is  placed  in  a  reservoir  of 
water  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid.  Seaweed  is  naturally 
tough  and  stiff,  owing  to  the  number  of  cellules  which 
it  contains  ;  to  render  it  supple  for  paper-making,  it  must 
therefore  be  steeped  in  an  acid  bath.  In  taking  out  the 
stuff  from  the  reservoir,  it  should  be  removed  with  a  wooden 
spade,  pierced  with  holes,  so  that  the  acid  water  may  be 
preserved  for  use  again.  The  paper  pulp  may  be  placed  in 
osier  baskets  to  drain  off  the  moisture.  The  filaments  of 
the  leaves  should  not  be  employed  for  white  paper,  as  they 
do  not  bleach  well.  After  cleansing  and  treating  with  the 
acid  as  already  described,  it  only  remains  to  bleach  the 
material  with  chloride  of  lime  till  it  is  of  the  whiteness 
required. 

Chevalier  Claussen,  when  treating  common  seaweeds 
with  alkalies,  found  they  were  entirely  dissolved  and  a 
soapy  compound  formed,  which  could  be  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap. 

A  patent  was  taken  out  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  T.  Ghislin 
for  utilizing  dissolved  and  pressed  seaweed,  under  the  name 
of  laminite,  in  making  imitation  horn,  moulded  for  the 
handles  of  cutlery,  for  sticks,  picture-frames,  book-covers, 
etc.     It  was  not  followed  up  to  any  extent. 

The  New  Zealanders  employ  the  large  pods  of  a  species 
of  seaweed  to  store  the  whale  oil  which  they  use  in 
the  lamps   of  their  sleeping  houses.      These,  when   filled, 


338       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

hold  about  a  quart  each,  are  tied  up  at  the  neck  with  flax 
fibre,  and  resemble  in  appearance  a  bottle  of  caoutchouc. 

The  large  dried  hollow  fronds  of  a  gigantic  fucus  serve 
as  water  buckets  on  the  Pacific  coasts  of  South  America. 
Water  pitchers  used  to  be  made  by  the  aborigines  of 
Tasmania  of  the  broad-leaved  kelp.  They  were  often 
large  enough  to  hold  a  quart  or  two  of  water.  These  and 
the  shell  of  a  species  of  Cyuiba  were  the.  only  vessels  they 
had  for  carrying  water. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

MARINE   SALT. 

Mode  of  obtaining  sea  salt — Salines  of  France,  where  situated— Statistics  of 
production — Composition  of  the  crude  salt — Manufacture  in  the  United 
States — Consumption  of  salt  in  various  countries — Sea-salt  works  of 
Portugal — Salt  manufacture  in  India  a  Government  monopoly — Imports 
of  foreign  salt-r-Salt  production  in  Cochin  China. 

Another  commercial  product  from  the  sea  is  salt,  ob- 
tained by  evaporation,  which  is  produced  on  a  large  scale 
in  many  quarters,  especially  in  India,  on  the  coast  of 
France,  in  Turks  Islands,  and  other  localities.  To  obtain 
this  salt  a  certain  quantity  of  sea  water  is  collected  in 
reservoirs,  constructed  on  the  seacoast,  which  are  termed 
salines,  or  salt  marshes,  where  it  is  evaporated  by  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  currents  of  air. 
As  sea  water  contains  only  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
per  cent,  ot  salt,  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  has  to  be 
submitted  to  evaporation  to  obtain  the  salt  of  commerce. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  operations  are  carried  on  upon 
so  large  a  scale,  and  the  work  is  so  arranged,  that  the  salt 
is  produced  at  a  very  moderate  price. 

France  has  about  82  salines,  or  salt  marshes,  occupying 
a  surface  of  about  48,500  acres.     These  are  situated,  one 


340       The  Coinmercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

on  the  Channel  coast,  36  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and 
45  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  These  consist  of 
one  or  more  reservoirs,  into  which  the  sea  water  is  passed. 
Those  of  the  south  are  greatly  superior  to  the  others,  be- 
cause they  are  better  managed,  and  the  climate  is  more 
favourable  for  evaporation. 

The  sea  water  is  introduced,  either  by  means  of  a  canal 
of  the  level  of  the  sea  banks,  or  by  means  of  hydraulic 
machines  in  other  cases,  into  a  reservoir,  which  is  shallow 
and  of  great  extent  of  surface,  so  that  the  liquid  may  be 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays.  In  this  reservoir, 
when  the  evaporation  commences,  the  water  passes  off 
slowly  into  a  series  of  rectangular  basins,  less  deep,  where  it 
continues  to  concentrate,  after  which  it  passes  into  a  trench 
which  conducts  it  to  the  great  wells,  called  the  wells  of 
green  water.  Pumps  then  raise  it  into  a  second  trench, 
by  which  it  is  carried  into  another  series  of  evaporating 
basins,  called  interior  heaters,  from  which  it  passes  into  the 
reservoir,  and  from  thence  by  a  third  trench  into  more 
wells,  called  the  salt  wells.  Here  the  sea  water  marks 
22°  to  24°  of  Beaume's  areometer.  The  pumps  then  pass 
it  into  a  fourth  trench,  which  carries  it  into  new  basins, 
smaller  than  the  preceding  ones,  called  salt  tables.  In 
these  tables,  where  the  liquid  mass  is  not  above  five  or  six 
centimetres  of  depth,  the  salt  is  deposited.  When  the 
principal  part  of  the  water  has  left  the  product,  the  water 
is  carried  off  by  the  canal  to  the  sea,  and  a  fresh  quantity 
of  condensed  salt-water  is  brought  into  the  salt-pans. 
The  water  is  renewed  daily  or  every  two  days,  and  this 
operation  is  carried  on  during  all  the  fine  weather,  that  is, 
from  April  to  September.  When  the  bed  of  salt  is  of  the 
thickness  of  four  or  five  centimetres,  it  is  collected  or 
shovelled  up.     For  this  purpose  the  masses  of  salt  are  left 


Marine  Salt.  341 

to  dry,  and  then  collected  with  spades  into  long  heaps  or 
piles,  which  are  called  camcllcs.  This  operation  is  only 
carried  on  two  or  three  times  during  the  season.  Finally, 
after  long  drainage,  the  heaped  salt  has  parted  with  all  its 
water,  and  is  ready  for  passing  into  commerce. 

The  salt  of  the  salines  of  the  Mediterranean  is  in  the 
form  of  very  large  and  white  crystals,  and  of  a  very  fine 
purity.  That  of  the  salt  marshes  of  the  ocean  is  in  the 
form  of  small  grey  crystals,  and  known  in  commerce  as 
grey  salt.  It  owes  this  colour  to  the  earthy  particles  be- 
longing to  the  basins,  where  it  is  collected  daily. 

To  convert  it  into  white  salt  it  has  either  to  be  washed 
or  refined,  in  order  to  remove  the  foreign  substances  which 
it  contains.  By  the  first  process  it  is  merely  washed  with 
water  saturated  with  pure  salt,  after  which  it  is  drained 
and  dried  in  stoves.  By  the  second  process,  and  by  which 
very  fine  and  white  table  salt  is  prepared,  the  grey  salt  is 
dissolved  in  ordinary  water ;  the  magnesia  contained  in 
the  solution  is  precipitated  with  lime  ;  it  is  then  filtered  and 
evaporated  in  shallow  boilers. 

The  salt  marshes  worked  in  France  are  in  the  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean,  principally  at 
the  island  of  Re,  in  the  Landes,  Charente-Inferieure,  and 
Loire-Inferieure.  As  the  production  of  the  salt  marshes  is 
variable,  the  price  of  salt  also  fluctuates.  The  average  may 
be  taken  at  2\  francs  per  100  kilogrammes,  to  which  has  to 
be  added  \2\  francs  duty,  bringing  up  the  price  to  15  francs. 
According  to  the  official  statistics,  the  consumption  of  table 
salt  in  France  in  1876  amounted  to  301,328,000  kilogrammes, 
representing  a  value  of  45,199,200  francs  ;  and  the  exports 
were  1,862,000  quintals,  value  3,000,000  francs,  making^ 
the  total  commerce  in  salt,  duty  paid,  amount  to  nearly 
;[^2,ooo,ooo  sterling,  besides  a  good  deal  emplo}ed  in  agri- 


342       The  Commej'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

culture,  the  fisheries,  and  chemical  industries,  on  which  no 
duty  is  paid. 

Marseilles  is  a  great  entrepot  for  the  trade  in  marine 
salt  in  France.  In  1877  the  deliveries  were  over  78,000 
tons,  of  which  17,400  tons  were  exported,  39,000  tons  locally 
consumed  in  the  chemical  and  soap  works,  and  12,000  tons 
employed  in  the  fisheries. 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  the  crude  salt  of 
the  south  and  west  of  France  : — 


Salt  of  the  south. 

Salt  of  the  west. 

Chloride  of  sodium 

95'" 

87-97 

,,         magnesia 

0-23 

1-58 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

1-30 

o"5o 

,,          lime     ... 

0-91 

1-65 

Earthy  particles 

o-io 

o-8o 

Water 

2-35 

7-50 

The  annual  average  production  of  marine  salt  in  France 
in  the  ten  years  ending  1876  was  as  follows : — 

Tons. 
Salt  marshes  of  the  south       230,125 

»  M         west         219,563 

Salines  or  salt-pits        203,907 


653.595 

The  quantity  delivered  for  consumption,  duty  paid,  was 
3i5»549  tons;  exported  abroad,  109,633  tons;  delivered 
free  for  various  manufactures,  I'^Z-^^Z  J  total,  608,945  tons. 
The  tax  on  salt  in  France  was  raised  to  12!^  francs  the  100 
kilogrammes  by  the  law  of  the  2nd  of  June,  1875. 

On  some  of  the  coasts  of  the  Channel,  marine  salt  is 
obtained  by  a  process  quite  different  from  that  adopted  in 
the  salines.  During  low  tide  the  sand  of  the  beach  is 
collected,  washed  with  sea  water,  which  gives  a  very  con- 
centrated briny  liquor,  and  this   is   evaporated  to  dryness 


Marine  Salt.  343 

in  small  boilers  heated  by  wood.  The  saline  mass  thus 
obtained  is  placed  in  baskets,  which  are  suspended  over 
the  boilers  during  the  subsequent  concentration.  The  salt, 
moistened  by  the  aqueous  vapour,  gives  up  almost  all 
its  deliquescent  salts.  It  is  then  stored,  and  only  sent 
into  commerce  after  some  months'  keeping.  During  this 
time  it  loses  a  further  28  or  30  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 
The  salt  obtained  by  this  method  is  very  white,  and  fine 
like  snow.     It  passes  under  the  name  of  igniferous  salt.* 

In  certain  cold  countries,  especially  in  Siberia,  where 
the  rigour  of  the  climate  does  not  allow  the  practice  of 
salt  marshes  to  be  carried  on,  recourse  is  had  to  freezing 
for  obtaining  salt.  This  process  rests  on  the  property 
which  water,  saturated  with  salt,  possesses  of  passing  into 
the  solid  state  at  a  much  lower  degree  than  pure  water. 
If  sea  water  is  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  some  degrees 
below  zero,  it  separates  into  two  parts — one  solid,  which  is 
the  water  pure  or  nearly  so  ;  the  other  liquid,  which  is  the 
water  more  or  less  charged.  By  removing  the  ice  flakes 
and  repeating  this  operation  several  times,  a  liquor  is 
obtained  more  or  less  concentrated,  from  which  it  is  easy 
to  obtain  the  salt  by  means  of  evaporation  ;  but  this  salt  is 
always  very  impure. 

The  total  production  of  salt  in  the  world  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  estimate,  because  it  is  not  solely  an  industrial 
manufacture  ;  but  in  many  localities,  and  especially  in  hot 
countries,  it  is  found  natural  and  spontaneous.  However, 
it  is  generally  believed  that  in  Europe  alone  the  produce  is 
about  3,000,000  tons.  In  France  the  mean  average  pro- 
duction is  set  down  at  about  650,000  tons,  divided  as 
follows  : — Salines  of  the  south,  300,000  tons  ;  salines  of  the' 
west,  250,000  tons;  salines  of  the  east  and  the  Pyrenees, 

*  Maigne's  "  Arts  and  Manufactures."     Paris. 


344       ^^^  Comme7'cial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

100,000  tons.  This  production  might  easily  be  doubled  or 
tripled,  but  it  is  limited  for  want  of  markets.  About 
540,000  tons  pass  into  consumption,  apportioned  as  fol- 
lows : — 370,000  tons  for  food  purposes,  50,000  for  chemical 
industries,  60,000  for  the  fisheries,  60,000  tons  for  export, 
and  7000  for  salting  fish  under  the  surveillance  of  the 
Customs. 

Salt  is  largely  produced  in  California,  mostly  from  sea 
water. 

Marine  salt  was  made  in  Austria  in  1876  to  the  amount 
of  344,862  metrical  quintals. 

In  the  Portuguese  possessions  of  St.  Thomas's  and 
Prince's  Island,  Angola,  Mossamedes,  and  the  islands  of 
Cape  Verd,  salt  is  made. 

Marine  salt,  obtained  on  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of 
Pechihle,  China,  by  spontaneous  evaporation  of  the  sea 
water  in  the  salt  marshes,  is,  like  saltpetre,  the  property  of 
the  State,  and  subject  to  special  laws. 

Salt  is  made  in  the  Portuguese  possession  of  Goa,  in 
India. 

The  principal  manufactories  of  salt  from  sea  water  in 
the  United  States  are  along  the  shores  of  Cape  Cod  and  at 
Nantucket. 

In  order  to  obtain  salt  by  evaporation,  the  sea  water  is 
pumped  by  Avindmills  into  shallow  wooden  pans  ;  or,  in 
countries  where  it  can  be  done,  it  is  allowed  to  flow  over  a 
salt  marsh,  which  has  been  previously  prepared  by  removing 
all  vegetation  from  its  surface.  The  salt  water  is  first 
secured  in  a  large  shallow  reservoir,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
become  moderately  concentrated  by  the  action  of  the  sun's 
heat  and  the  winds.  From  this  it  is  conducted,  by  a  system 
of  sluiceways,  into  other  reservoirs  or  evaporating  basins 
more  carefully  constructed,  and   in    these  it  deposits  the 


Marine  Salt.  345 

lime  salts.  Finally,  it  is  led  into  basins  where  it  begins  to 
deposit  the  salt,  the  water  in  these  compartments  being 
only  a  few  inches  in  depth.  When  the  land  is  sufficiently 
below  the  level  of  the  sea  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  from 
one  set  of  basins  into  the  adjoining  ones,  of  course  the  pro- 
cess is  rendered  quite  easy  ;  but  if  it  is  not  low  enough, 
the  brine  is  raised  at  various  stages  by  pumps  moved  by 
windmills.  Salt  produced  in  this  way  is  called  bay  salt, 
and  can  only  be  made  in  very  dry  countries,  as  a  few  hours' 
rain  would  spoil  the  labour  of  weeks.  When  wooden  tanks 
are  used,  they  are  generally  protected  from  the  rain  by 
coverings.  The  tanks  are  made  about  ten  feet  square,  and 
a  foot  deep.  The  roofs  are  moved  off  and  on  by  the  aid  of 
wheels  running  on  rails,  or,  what  is  more  common,  two  roofs 
are  fastened  together  by  their  corners,  and  so  arranged 
that  they  will  turn  about  on  a  pivot,  covering  or  uncovering 
two  tanks  by  one  movement. 

The  average  consumption  of  salt  per  head  in  various 
countries  has  been  roughly  estimated  to  be  as  follows  : — 


England     ... 

lbs. 

40 

Austria     ... 

lbs. 
16 

Italy 

France 

Russia 

20 
18 

Prussia 

Spain 

Switzerland 

14 

12 

8 

Belgium     ... 

164 

No  marine  salt  is  made  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but 
the  manufacture  of  salt  reaches  about  1,500,000  tons,  nearly 
half  of  which  is  exported,  chiefly  to  India  and  the  United 
States. 

Sea  salt  is  made  to  a  small  extent  in  Algoa  Bay  and 
other  parts  of  the  Cape  Colony,  and  in  Australia. 

The  sea-salt  works  of  Portugal  are  very  extensive,  and 
produce  annually  250,000  tons  of  salt,  which  is  in  great 
request.      The   centres   of  the   manufacture   are   Setubal, 


34^       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Lisbon,  Aveiro,  and  Algarve.  The  arrangement  of  the 
salines  at  Setubal  is  very  simple.  They  form  a  vast  reser- 
voir, divided  into  squares,  separated  from  each  other  by 
roads  a  little  more  than  a  yard  wide,  and  all  communicating 
with  a  main  reservoir,  which  stores  up  the  sea  water.  The 
water  is  admitted  directly  into  these  square  tanks,  where  it 
evaporates  and  deposits  its  salt  without  any  previous  con- 
centration or  purification.  In  autumn  the  water  is  allowed 
to  flow  in  so  as  to  cover  the  entire  salt  marsh  to  the  depth 
of  50  or  60  centimetres.  In  spring  this  water  evaporates, 
and  in  the  month  of  June  the  separation  roads  appear  above 
the  surface.  The  tanks  are  then  cleaned  out,  left  to  them- 
selves, and  recharged  from  time  to  time  with  new  supplies 
of  water.  Under  the  influence  of  the  north-east  winds 
which  prevail  at  this  season,  the  evaporation  is  very  rapid, 
and  after  about  20  days  each  tank  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  salt  an  inch  and  a  half  thick  and  almost  dry.  This  is 
the  first  crop.  The  salt  is  collected,  sea  water  is  intro- 
duced anew  into  the  reservoirs,  and  20  days  afterwards  a 
second  crop  is  gathered.  But  this  is  not  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  salt  is  covered  with  an  inch  or  so  of 
mother  liquor,  which  is  left  behind  on  gathering  the  salt. 
If  the  season  is  favourable,  a  third  crop  is  attempted,  and 
in  September  the  marsh  is  flooded  over  for  the  winter. 

In  India  the  salt  manufacture  is  a  Government  mono- 
poly, and  the  tax  produces  about  ;i^6,250,ooo  annually. 
The  native  production  would  appear  to  be  hardly  sufficient, 
since  duty  amounting  to  ;^2,23  5,000  was  received  on  foreign 
salt  imported  in  1876.  The  duty  levied  varies  from  \s.  to 
6s.  6d.  per  maund.  The  annual  imports  ol  foreign  salt 
range  from  600,000  to  900,000  tons. 

The  quantity  of  salt  imported  and  delivered  trom  salt 
works  in  the  Bombay  Presidency  in  the  year  ending  March, 


Marine  Salt.  347 

1867,  was  5,403,718  maunds,  of  which  4,597,312  maunds 
were  sea  salt.     There  were  354  salt  works  in  operation. 

Extensive  salt  fields  exist  at  Shimpagah,  a  short  dis- 
tance above  Mandalay,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Irra- 
waddy  river.  It  is  also  obtained  at  other  places  in  Burmah 
on  a  small  scale.  Large  quantities  could  be  manufactured 
at  Shimpagah,  but  imported  salt  is  fast  taking  its  place  in 
the  market. 

The  manufacture  of  sea  salt  is  carried  on  on  the  coasts 
of  Cochin  China,  and  bids  fair  to  become  a  prosperous 
industry.  There  are  salines  worked  at  Soc-Trang,  Baria, 
and  Bien-Hoa. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  carrying  on 
the  manufacture  at  the  salines  of  Baria.  Each  hectare 
(about  two  acres)  of  saline  is  subdivided  as  follows  : — 

Ares. 
Tables  ...  ...  .,,  40 

Beds  ...  ...  ...  40 

Jas  ...  ...  ...  ...  20 

I  hectare. 

From  which  it  results  that  to  establish  200  hectares  of 
"  tables,"  it  requires  not  less  than  250  hectares  of  land. 
The  working  of  one  hectare  of  tables,  or  two  and  a  half 
hectares  of  saline,  involves  the  following  expenditure : — 
1500  francs  at  first,  for  feeding  the  workmen  during  the 
formation  of  the  salines.  If  the  first  collection  of  salt  is 
good,  the  workpeople  are  paid  a  second  sum  of  1500 
francs,  and  the  collection  of  salt  is  given  over  to  them  for 
their  own  benefit.  The  capital  thus  advanced  amounts  to 
3000  francs.  The  second  year  the  proprietors  work  on 
their  own  account,  and  collect  probably  salt  to  the  value  of 
2000  francs.  After  deducting  tax,  etc.,  there  remains 
about  1200  francs  of  net  revenue  on  the  capital  advanced, 


348       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

at  different  stages,  of  3800  francs;  that  is  to  say,  about  36 
per  cent. 

If  the  result  of  the  manufacture  or  collection  of  salt  is 
unfavourable,  the  salt  makers  improve  their  work  during 
the  second  year  without  any  further  advance  than  the 
resulting  product  obtained  for  their  own  benefit. 

It  results  from  these  figures  that  to  work  100  hectares 
of  salt-pits,  or  250  hectares  of  land,  requires  a  capital  of 
about  400,000  francs  (^16,000). 

In  Western  Australia  salt  is  collected  from  the  Canning 
in  its  natural  state,  and  it  is  evaporated  from  the  water  on 
the  salt  lakes  on  Rottnest  Island,  from  Poolenup  Lake,  and 
from  Lake  Muir.  The  salt  from  Rottnest,  evaporated  at 
226°  F.,  contains  95*9  of  pure  chloride  of  sodium. 

The  salt  trade  of  the  Bahamas  a.id  Turks  Islands  has 
been  almost  paralyzed  by  the  high  rate  of  duty  levied  in 
the  United  States.  In  1873,  salt  to  the  value  of  /^i  1,080 
was  shipped  from  the  Bahamas  ;  in  1876  it  had  fallen  to 
;^4,639.  In  several  of  the  out  islands  of  the  group  the 
inhabitants  formerly  relied  upon  the  proceeds  of  salt-raking, 
and  the  islands  upon  which  salinas  are  situated  are  not,  as 
a  rule,  capable  of  producing  anything  else.  For  the  la.st 
few  years  the  industry  has  entailed  a  loss  on  all  those 
engaged  in  it,  and  there  is  no  hope  of  their  condition  being 
improved  until  the  duty  is  reduced  or  entirely  abolished. 


PART    III. 
MARINE   CONTRIBUTIONS   TO   ART. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TORTOISESHELL  AND   THE   TURTLE   FISHERIES. 

Marine  tortoiseshell — Commercial  classification — Land  tortoises — Employment 
of  tortoiseshell — Mode  of  working  it — Various  applications  of  tortoiseshell 
— Statistics  of  imports — The  green  or  edible  turtle — Food  uses  of  the  fles^i 
and  eggs. 

If  the  earth  is  made  by  man  to  give  up  its  gems  and 
precious  stones  for  art,  and  its  mineral  and  vegetable  sub- 
stance for  the  art  workman  and  the  art  manufacturer,  the 
sea  is  also  constrained  to  yield  its  pearls,  its  coral,  and 
amber  for  the  jeweller  ;  its  mother-of-pearl  and  other  shells 
for  inlaying  and  carving,  and  its  tortoiseshell  for  ornamental 
work.  It  also  yields  treasures  for  the  painter,  the  sculptor, 
and  the  art  manufacturer,  for  designs  and  studies;  whilst  its 
objects  of  beauty  in  corallines,  shells,  and  seaweeds  adorn 
the  cabinets  of  the  naturalist,  the  collector,  and  public 
museum.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  even  in  this  scientific 
age  much  ignorance  still  prevails  as  to  the  nature,  sources 
of  supply,  and  mode  of  treatment  of  many  of  these  marine 
substances — so  worthy  of  close  study  and  investigation. 

A  little  scattered  information  on  some  of  the  materials 
mentioned  has,  from  time  to  time,  been  published  ;  but 
they  seem  to  require  more  systematic  description. 

The  horn-like  epidermoid  plates  which  cover  the  dorsal 
buckler  or  carapace  of  the  sea-tortoise,  are  in  some  species 


352       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

so  fine  and  of  such  beautiful  colours  as  to  be  employed  for 
various  purposes  of  art.  It  is  only  those,  however,  of  the 
hawksbill  and  caret  species  that  possess  any  great  trade 
value  ;  the  plates  being  stronger,  thicker,  and  clearer  than 
in  other  varieties.  There  are  usually  13  plates  on  the 
carapace,  called  collectively  in  trade  "  the  head," — four  on 
each  side,  and  five  on  the  back;  the  last  bent  in  the  centre. 
Of  the  side  plates,  the  two  middle  are  the  most  valuable, 
being  the  largest  and  thickest ;  those  on  the  back  and 
margin,  known  as  "  hoofs  "  or  "  claws,"  are  comparatively  of 

Fig.  26. 


Hawksbill  turtle. 

less  value.  There  are  24  marginal  pieces  round  the  edges, 
which  are  termed  the  "  feet "  or  "  noses."  The  laniellce  or 
plates  vary  in  thickness  from  one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of 
an  inch,  according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  animal,  and 
weigh  collectively  from  four  to  six  pounds  or  upwards.  In 
an  animal  of  ordinary  size,  about  three  feet  long  and  two 
and  a  half  feet  wide,  the  largest  plates  weigh  about  nine 
ounces,  and  measure  about  thirteen  by  eight  inches,  and 
are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  in  the  middle. 


Tortoiseshell  and  the   Turtle  Fisheries.      353 

Tortoiseshell  is  usually  detached  from  the  carapace  and 
bony  framework  by  placing  heat  below,  or  sometimes  by 
soaking  it  in  boiling  water.  In  the  West  Indies  the  plates 
or  blades  of  tortoiseshell  are  removed  by  burying  the 
carapace  in  the  ground,  or  in  the  sand,  for  10  or  12  days. 
When  taken  up  the  blades  fall  off,  and  the  13  dorsal  pieces 
are  easily  collected,  forming  the  before-mentioned,  viz.,  eight 
"  sides,"  two  "  hoofs,"  one  "  skull,"  and  two  "  main  plates." 
A  small  hole  is  bored  in  each,  so  as  to  string  them  together, 
for  no  experienced  buyer  will  purchase  a  case  of  tortoise- 
shell  unless  the  whole  of  the  shell  is  thus  presented. 

The  "  feet  "  or  "  noses  "  of  the  tortoiseshell  are  chiefly 
in  demand  in  China.  The  blades  of  the  hawksbill  or  im- 
bricated turtle  are  very  transparent,  and  more  beautifully 
mottled  than  those  of  the  caret  turtle ;  the  scales  of  the 
latter  are  thinner,  and  are  not  used  for  the  same  purposes, 
but  employed  for  veneering  and  inlaying  work.  The  shell 
of  the  hawksbill  has  a  blackish  green  colour,  with  yellowish 
spots  ;  while  the  colour  of  the  plates  of  the  caret  turtle  is 
blackish,  with  irregular  transparent  spots  of  golden  yellow, 
and  veined  with  red  and  white,  or  of  a  brownish  black,  of 
various  shades. 

The  plates  of  the  green  or  edible  turtle  are  thin  and 
flexible,  and  of  slight  manufacturing  use.  Their  general 
colour  is  dull  palish  brown,  streaked  with  patches  of  black, 
but  not  exhibiting  those  strong  beautiful  colours  which  so 
peculiarly  distinguish  that  of  the  imbricated  tortoise.  The 
scales  of  the  carapace  of  the  loggerhead  turtle  are  of  a 
dark  chestnut  brown,  very  thin,  and  neither  clear  nor 
beautifully  coloured  ;  hence  they  are  of  little  value  :  but 
latterly  some  use  appears  to  be  made  of  them,  for  the 
imports  of  turtleshell  (as  it  is  commercially  named,  in  con- 
tradistinction   to    tortoiseshell)  have  averaged  in  the  last 

16 


354       '^^^^  Conwiej'cial  Prodiicts  of  the  Sea. 

four  or  five  yeais  in  value  ^6000,  worth  wholesale  about 
^s.  or  6s.  a  pound  ;  the  range  has  been,  however,  as  low  as 
%d.  to  3^".  per  pound  for  turtleshell. 

Of  the  shells  of  the  smaller  land-tortoises  not  much  use 
is  now  commercially  made  ;  and  they  find  no  sale  in  this 
country.  They  were  formerly  worked  up  in  the  manu- 
facture of  ornamental  articles,  such  as  tea-caddies,  work- 
boxes,  card-cases,  side-combs,  etc.  ;  but  they  have  fallen 
almost  into  disuse,  being  superseded  by  the  marine  tortoise- 
shell.  In  the  Cape  Colony  the  dorsal  shield  or  shell  of  a 
small  land-tortoise,  about  three  inches  in  diameter,  which 
is  very  beautiful,  is  made  into  a  snuft'-box.  This  kind  is 
used,  more  especially  on  the  continent,  in  buhl  furniture, 
and  occasionally  in  England  for  inlaying  tables,  cabinets, 
picture-lrames,  and  other  ornamental  articles  ;  a  suitable 
foil  being  placed  below  it,  to  give  lustre  and  colour.  The 
shells  of  land-tortoises  are  used  by  the  Indians  of  North 
America  for  pots,  scoops,  and  rattles. 

By  holding  pieces  of  shell  before  a  gentle  fire,  or,  what 
is  better,  by  steeping  them  in  boiling  water,  they  can  be  so 
far  softened  as  to  be  pressed  into  moulds. 

The  moulds  employed  for  this  purpose  are  double,  so 
as  to  contain  the  shell  between  them.  Both  parts  of  the 
mould  being  made  warm,  the  piece  of  tortoise-shell,  which 
is  made  warm  and  pliant,  is  placed  on  the  lower  half  of  the 
mould,  and  the  counter-mould  is  closed  upon  the  shell. 
The  mould  is  then  put  into  a  press,  and  the  upper  half  is 
gently  pressed  down  upon  the  shell.  The  whole  is  then 
put  into  boiling  water,  and  as  the  shell  becomes  more 
and  more  softened,  the  upper  half  of  the  mould  is,  from 
time  to  time,  screwed  down  upon  the  shell,  until  at  length 
the  shell  is  completely  pressed  into  the  lower  mould,  and  is 
itself  closely   pressed  by  the  upper  mould  ;  so  that  any 


Tortoiseshell  and  the  Ttcrtle  Fisheries.      355 

devices  that  may  have  been  engraved  or  embossed  upon 
the  two  halves  of  the  mould  leave  corresponding  impressions 
upon  the  shell.  The  mould  is  then  taken  out  of  the  hot 
water  and  steeped  in  cold  water  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ; 
after  which  the  shell  is  taken  out  and  is  found  to  retain  the 
form  imparted  to  it  by  the  mould. 

When  two  pieces  of  tortoiseshell  are  to  be  joined 
together,  the  two  edges  are  bevelled  or  chamferred  off,  so 
that  one  inclined  edge  may  lie  upon  the  other.  The  edges 
are  then  scraped  perfectly  clean,  contact  with  the  fingers 
or  any  greasy  substance  being  carefully  guarded  against. 
A  piece  of  paper  is  then  bound  round  the  overlapped 
edges  and  fastened  with  string.  A  pair  of  tongs  or  pincers, 
something  like  hair-dressers'  tongs,  are  then  heated  and 
applied  to  the  shell,  one  jaw  above  and  another  beneath, 
by  which  the  shell  is  grasped  throughout  the  length  of  the 
seam  or  overlap.  By  holding  it  some  time  in  this  position 
the  heat  of  the  iron  penetrates  through  the  paper,  softens 
the  shell,  and  causes  the  two  pieces  to  unite  firmly.  Some- 
times two  pieces  of  shell  are  united  by  means  of  boiling 
water.  The  two  edges  are  overlapped,  two  pieces  of  metal 
are  placed  along  the  joining,  the  shell  is  placed  in  a  press, 
and  the  whole  is  immersed  in  boiling  water.  As  the  shell 
softens,  the  press  is  screwed  more  tightly,  by  which  the  two 
pieces  of  shell  become  firmly  united.  In  practice,  when 
two  pieces  of  tortoiseshell  are  joined,  attention  is  paid  to 
the  colour  and  pattern  of  the  surface,  in  order  that  the  two 
pieces  may  agree  in  those  respects. 

Sometimes  ornaments  are  made  of  what  may  be  termed 
melted  tortoiseshell,  with  very  beautiful  effect.  The  clip- 
pings, raspings,  turnings,  etg.,  of  tortoiseshell  are  collected 
and  put  into  moulds  which  are  dot^hlp  ;  th^t  is,  a  mould  for 
the  external  surface  of  a  box  or  piepe  of  ornament,  and 


35^       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

another  for  the  internal  surface.  When  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  small  particles  of  shell  is  put  into  the  lower  mould, 
which  is  to  form  the  external  surface,  the  upper  mould  is 
placed  upon  them,  and  gently  pressed  down  by  a  screw 
attached  to  a  frame  which  contains  both  moulds.  The 
frame  and  moulds  are  then  immersed  in  boiling  water,  and 
as  the  particles  of  shell  become  softened,  the  screw  is 
gradually  turned,  so  that  the  shell  becomes  pressed  into  a 
soft  continuous  film,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  space 
between  the  two  moulds.  The  moulds  are  then  allowed  to 
cool,  and  the  shell  is  removed  from  between  them,  when  it 
is  found  to  give  accurate  representations,  in  relief,  of  any 
objects  which  may  be  engraved  on  the  moulds.  This  mode 
of  manufacture  has  been  carried  to  great  perfection  in 
France,  from  whence  snuff-boxes  in  great  variety  are  pro- 
cured. The  French  have  also  made  hollow  walking-sticks 
of  pure  tortoiseshell,  by  joining  strips  of  shell  together,  and 
moulding  them  round  a  central  stick  or  core,  which  is 
afterwards  removed. 

The  scales  of  the  plastron,  or  under-shield,  are  of  a 
yellow  colour,  and  are  used  for  many  of  the  purposes  of 
horn.  This  shell  differs  entirely  in  appearance,  for  instead 
of  the  mottled  shaded  colour  with  its  varying  tints  and 
markings,  it  is  of  a  bright  yellow,  resembling  somevv'hat  the 
"  hoof,"  or  connecting  marginal  pieces  ;  but  as  these  ap- 
proach the  upper  part  of  the  shell,  they  partake  of  its 
mottled  colouring. 

The  under  plates  and  hoof  are  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  gold  or  amber-coloured  semi-transparent  combs 
so  much  admired  abroad.  The  Spanish  ladies  will  often 
give  £l  or  £^  for  a  comb  of  plain  yellow  tortoiseshell, 
while  a  similar  one  of  the  mottled  kind  would  not  fetch 
there,  perhaps,  more  than  20s.  or  ^os.     Such  is  the  influence 


Tortoiseshell  and  the  Turtle  Fisheries.      357 

of  fashion  and  taste.  Works  in  this  material  are  made 
either  by  cutting  them  out  of  the  shell,  or  by  soldering 
when  softened  by  heat.  Tortoiseshell  is  often  veneered 
upon  a  body  of  wood,  scraped  to  a  uniform  thickness,  and 
attached  by  fine  glue.  The  colours  are  rendered  darker 
or  brighter  by  various  coatings  of  coloured  varnish,  or  of 
metallic  leaf  placed  under  the  veneer. 

Tortoiseshell  is  worked  upon  like  horn,  and  is  usually 
softened  or  rendered  plastic  by  placing  in  boiling  water, 
containing  a  handful  of  salt  to  the  quart,  for  about  an  hour 
before  working  ;  but  there  is  no  necessity  for  previous 
soaking  in  cold  water,  as  with  horn.  In  operating  on  the 
shell  of  young  tortoises,  the  water  has  to  be  made  salter, 
and  the  time  of  boiling  should  be  less.  Some  articles  are 
made  by  placing  in  brass  moulds  the  raspings,  turnings, 
and  shreds  of  tortoiseshell.  The  moulds,  to  the  number  of 
12  to  20,  are  then  placed  parallel  in  a  boiler  of  hot  water, 
and  left  till  the  softening  and  pressure  show  that  the  mould 
is  filled  ;  they  are  then  taken  out,  and  the  objects  polished 
and  finished  for  sale. 

In  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  material,  being  costly, 
is  economised  as  much  as  possible.  For  instance,  in 
making  the  frames  for  eye-glasses,  narrow  strips  of  tortoise- 
shell  are  used,  in  which  slits  are  cut  with  a  saw  ;  the  slits 
being  subsequently,  while  the  shell  is  warm,  strained  or 
pulled  open,  until  they  form  circular  or  oval  apertures,  by 
the  insertion  of  tapering  triblets  of  the  required  shape. 
The  same  yielding  or  flexible  property  is  made  use  of  in 
the  manufacture  of  boxes,  a  round  flat  disc  of  shell  being 
gradually  forced  by  means  of  moulds  into  the  form  of  a 
circular  box  with  upright  sides.  The  union  of  two  or  more 
pieces  of  shells  may  be  efi"ected  by  carefully  scraping  the 
parts  that  are  to  overlap,  so  as  to  render  them  perfectly 


358       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

free  from  grease  (even  such  as  might  arise  from  being 
touched  by  the  fingers),  softening  them  in  hot  water,  press- 
ing them  together"  with  hot  flat  tongs,  and  then  pkmging 
the  joint  into  cold  water. 

If,  however,  the  heat  is  too  great,  the  colours  are  much 
deepened,  so  as  to  become  almost  black,  as  in  the  case  of 
moulded  snuff'-boxes  ;  for  tortoiseshell,  being  less  fusible 
than  horn,  cannot  be  made  soft  enough  to  be  moulded 
without  some  injury  to  the  colour.  Accordingly,  the 
manufacturers  never  attempt  to  produce  tortoiseshell  combs 
with  ornamental  open  work  by  means  of  dies,  but  in  the 
following  manner  : — A  paper  being  pasted  over  the  tortoise- 
shell,  the  pattern  is  drawn  on  the  paper,  and  is  then  cut 
out  by  means  of  drills  and  fine  saws  ;  the  paper  is  re- 
moved by  steeping  in  water,  and  the  surface  of  the  pattern 
is  finished  by  the  graver. 

In  making  small  side-combs,  it  is  found  worth  while,  in 
order  to  save  a  costly  m.aterial,  to  employ  a  machine,  con- 
sisting of  a  cutter  working  straight  up  and  down,  and  of  a 
bed  (on  which  the  shell  is  laid)  to  which  is  given  a  motion, 
advancing,  by  alternate  inclination,  first  to  one  side  and 
then  to  the  other.  By  this  means  the  teeth  of  two  combs 
are  cut  at  the  same  time ;  those  of  the  one  occupying  the 
interva'  /of  the  other.  Such  combs  are  called  parted,  the 
saw  nc  .being  used  upon  them.  They  are  often  made  of 
fine  siained  horn  instead  of  tortoiseshell,  and  it  is  difficult 
for  the  inexperienced  eye  to  detect  the  difference. 

The  appearance  of  tortoiseshell  may  be  given  to  horn 
by  brushing  it  over  with  a  paste  made  of  two  parts  of  lime 
one  part  litharge,  and  a  little  soda-lye,  which  is  allowed  to 
dry.  This  is  the  same  as  the  Indian  hair-dye,  and  acts  by 
forming  sulphuret  of  lead  with  the  sulphur  contained  in  the 
albumen  of  the  horn,  producing  dark  spots,  which  contrast 


Tortoiseshell  and  the   Turtle  Fisheries,      359 

with  the  brighter  colour  of  the  horn.  Artificial  tortoise- 
shell  is  made  by  melting  gelatine  with  various  metallic 
salts. 

The  greatest  comb-manufactory  in  the  world  is  in 
Aberdeen.  There  are  36  furnaces  on  the  works  for  pre- 
paring horns  and  tortoiseshell  for  the  combs,  and  no  less 
than  120  iron  screw-presses  worked  by  steam. 

Forty  years  ago,  ladies'  back-combs — which  were  larger 
than  ladies'  bonnets  are  now — were  made  in  England  and 
the  United  States  for  the  Spanish  peninsula  and  South 
American  markets.  They  were  often  a  couple  of  feet  wide, 
encircling  two-thirds  of  the  head,  and  from  six  inches  to  a 
foot  high  on  the  back,  the  top  being  wrought  in  open  work  ; 
to  these  the  Spanish  ladies  attached  their  veils.  As  much 
of  the  work  was  done  by  hand  and  with  the  saw,  and 
the  polishing  was  entirely  manual,  the  prices  were  high, 
averaging  £l  to  ^4. 

For  modern  uses  thick  tortoiseshell  is  more  valuable 
than  thin;  but  among  the  Romans,  who  had  2. furore  for 
articles  inlaid  with  tortoiseshell,  veneers  were  cut  off  it,  and 
very  beautiful  work  can  be  produced  by  this  process.  In 
veneering  it  is  usual  to  apply  fish-glue  mixed  with  lamp- 
black, vermilion,  green,  chrome,  white  or  other  colouring 
matter,  at  the  back  of  the  shell,  both  to  heighten  its  effect 
and  to  conceal  the  glue  or  cement  by  which  it  is  secured  to 
the  wooden  foundation. 

The  uses  of  tortoiseshell  for  ornament  are  varied,  and  a 
very  great  number  of  articles,  as  must  be  generally  known, 
are  made  from  this  substance.  Brown  and  light-coloured 
tortoiseshell  is  imported  from  India  and  China  to  France 
for  fans,  the  former  costing  about  25^'.  the  pound,  the  latter 
as  much  as  ^4.  Machinery  has  almost  entirely  replaced 
hand  work  in  the  cutting  of  the  mountings  for  fans,  with 


360       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  exception  of  tortoiseshell  and  ivory.  In  China  and 
Japan  very  beautiful  cups  and  saucers  are  made  from 
this  material,  little  fancy  boxes,  cases  for  holding  chop- 
sticks, and  such  like.  The  artistic  mode  of  lacquering, 
gilding,  and  ornamenting  the  tortoiseshell  salvers,  cups, 
and  boxes,  as  practised  in  Japan,  has  yet  to  be  acquired 
here. 

The  Chinese  are  partial  to  tortoiseshell,  but  then  they 
have  peculiar  notions  respecting  it.  Tortoiseshell  having 
white  and  dark  spots  that  touch  each  other,  and  is  as  much 
as  possible  similar  on  both  sides  of  the  plate,  is  in  their 
eyes  much  finer,  and  on  this  account  more  eagerly  bought 
by  them,  than  shell  that  wants  this  peculiarity.  On  the 
contrary,  plates  which  are  reddish  rather  than  black  in 
their  dark  spots,  which  possess  little  white,  and  are  more 
damasked  than  spotted — in  a  word,  in  which  the  colours, 
according  to  the  Chinese  taste,  are  badly  distributed — are 
less  valued.  This  caprice  of  the  Chinese  makes  them 
sometimes  value  single  "  heads "  at  unheard-of  prices ; 
such,  for  example,  as  go  under  the  name  of  "white 
heads,"  and  for  the  varieties  of  which  they  have  peculiar 
names. 

Tortoiseshell  was  much  used  to  decorate  furniture  by 
the  Romans.  According  to  Pliny,  Carvillius  Pollio  was 
the  first  to  apply  tortoiseshell  to  ornamental  purposes. 
The  fashion  for  this  style  of  decoration  increased,  and  in 
the  days  of  Augustus  the  patricians  ornamented  their 
doors  and  the  columns  of  their  rooms  with  this  substance. 
Julius  Caesar  found  in  Alexandria  such  a  collection  of  the 
carapaces  of  the  tortoise  that  he  had  them  carried  in  his 
triumphal  entry. 

Strabo,  Diodorus,  and  Pliny,  all  speak  of  boats  made 
from   the   shells   of  tortoises.     They   are   authors   of  un- 


Tor ioises hell  and  the  Turtle  Fisheries.      361 

doubted  veracity,  and  we  must  credit  the  fact,  although  we 
are  not  furnished  with  any  very  definite  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  they  were  built.  The  sea-turtle  is  sometimes 
found  of  sufficient  size  to  make  a  small  boat  from  the  back 
shell,  and  of  the  gigantic  luth  {Sparges  [Dermatockclys] 
coriacea)  there  is  a  carapace  fully  nine  feet  in  length,  pre- 
served in  the  Sydney  Museum,  New  South  Wales.  But 
the  Egyptians  could  have  known  nothing  of  such  monsters. 
They  must  have  used  the  land-tortoise,  and  most  probably 
had  the  art  of  welding  together  pieces  of  shell  by  means  of 
heat. 

Diodorus  tells  us  that,  besides  furnishing  food  for  the 
people  bordering  the  Red  Sea,  they  made  of  the 
carapace  small  boats  to  cross  the  Red  Sea,  utensils  for 
holding  various  substances,  and  tiles  for  covering  their 
dwellings. 

"I  have  been  told,"  says  Dampier,  "of  a  monstrous 
tortoise  taken  in  the  Bay  of  Campeachy,  which  measured 
four  feet  from  the  back  to  the  belly,  and  six  feet  in  width. 
The  son  of  Captain  Rock,  9  or  10  years  old,  used  this  as  a 
boat  to  go  from  the  shore  to  his  father's  vessel,  about  a 
quarter  of  a  league."  Another  voyager,  Lemaire,  states 
that,  at  Cape  Blanc,  the  turtles  are  of  such  a  size  that  some 
with  the  bones  removed  yielded  a  barrel  of  flesh,  without 
the  head,  throat,  tail,  fins,  tripe,  and  eggs,  and  would 
furnish  a  good  meal  to  30  men. — Firmin,  "Voyage  in 
Equinoxial  Holland,"  page  80. 

The  specimens  to  be  seen  in  the  Natural  History 
Museums  of  Paris  and  London,  give  an  idea  of  the  mon- 
strous size  of  some  of  these  sea-turtles,  so  that  there  is 
nothing  exaggerated  in  the  accounts  of  travellers.  But  it  is 
not  these  large  turtles  that  are  most  esteemed  for  food  ; 
those  of  10  or  25  lbs.  weight  are  the  best  flavoured. 


^62       The  Com^nercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

At  the  first  London  International  Exhibition,  in  185 1, 
tortoiseshell  bracelets,  brooches,  ornaments,  circlets,  and 
rings  were  shown  by  M.  Philip,  a  Parisian  manufacturer, 
who  received  a  medal  for  them  ;  but  it  is  only  lately  that 
this  species  of  ornament  has  come  much  into  vogue  here. 
This  tortoiseshell  jewellery,  however,  is  neat,  tasteful,  and 
moderate  priced,  and  is  taking  the  place  of  the  vulcanite 
and  jet  ornaments  which  have  been  so  much  worn.  The 
tortoiseshell  is  moulded  for  these  into  earrings,  brooches, 
bracelets,  crosses,  and  other  pendants,  in  which  piqii^  gold 
ornaments  and  fancy  devices  are  worked. 

England  imports  annually  large  quantities  of  tortoise- 
shell,  and  maintains  the  monopoly  of  this  artistic  material. 
It  would  scarcely  be  believed  that  in  some  years  upwards 
of  30  tons  of  this  ornamental  substance,  valued  at  more 
than  .^74,000,  are  imported  here,  and  on  the  average  of 
years  about  25  tons  are  received. 

At  the  Paris  International  Exhibition  of  1867,  among 
the  countries  which  exhibited  tortoiseshell  were  Holland, 
Dutch  India,  the  Bahamas,  and  Tahiti.  A  French  ex- 
hibitor at  Nossi-be,  who  exports  6000  to  7000  lbs.  annually, 
showed  some  fine  plates  of  shell. 

To  show  how  widespread  is  the  range  of  the  marine 
tortoise,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  tortoiseshell  comes  to 
us  from  more  countries  than  any  similar  raw  ornamental 
substance.  We  receive  it  from  India  and  China,  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  and  Pacific  Islands,  Australia,  the 
West  Indies,  South  America,  and  Africa.  The  Indian 
islands  furnish  the  largest  supply  of  tortoiseshell  for  the 
European  and  Chinese  markets,  the  chief  emporia  being 
Singapore,  Manila,  and  Batavia,  from  which  26,000  to 
30,000  lbs.  are  annually  exported. 


TortoiseshelL  and  the  Tuj^tle  Fisheries.      36, 


The  imports  into  the 

United 

Kin 

gdom  and  vahies  in 

1870  were  from — 

lbs. 

Value. 

Holland       

6,900 

•••    ;^4,330 

Philippine  Islands  ... 

2,536 

...    1,836 

British  India 

2,528 

984 

Straits  Settlements.. 

1,982 

...     1,414 

Australia 

9,144 

6,220 

New  Granada 

6,228 

... 

...    4,518 

West  India  Islands  and 

Honduras 

.    9,576 

... 

•••      6,553 

Other  parts 

.    10,438 

...    6,628 

49,332  ;^32,S03 

The  average  prices  in  1870  were  from  135'.  to  i^y.  6d. 
per  pound,  except  Indian  tortoiseshell,  which  was  only 
worth  js.  ()d.  per  pound. 

Tortoiseshell  remained  low  in  price  for  some  years,  as 
it  is  greatly  dependent  for  its  chief  use,  that  of  ladies' 
combs,  on  the  fashion  of  the  day  in  wearing  the  hair,  A 
quarter  of  a  century  ago  it  often  fetched  £t,  T)S.  the  pound  ; 
in  recent  years  the  average  wholesale  price  has  not  been 
more  than  from  12s.  to  15^-.,  but  of  late  there  has  been  an 
increased  demand,  and  a  gradual  upward  tendency  in 
prices  is  manifested.  At  one  of  the  London  monthly 
public  sales,  good  dark-mottled  shell  on  a  light  ground, 
free  from  scab,  and  thin  red  shell  or  dull  colours,  from 
Zanzibar,  Bombay,  and  Singapore,  fetched  wholesale  28.5- 
to  29^".  6d.  per  pound.  Of  West  Indian  tortoiseshell, 
4000  to  5000  lbs.  were  readily  sold  at  from  31^-.  to  41.$-.  per 
pound  for  fair  to  good  quality  "  hoof ; "  ordinary  and 
medium,  from  2^s.  6d.  to  32^-.;  and  even  inferior  as  high 
as  lis.  to  22s.  per  pound. 

As  much  as  5000  and  6000  lbs.  of  tortoiseshell  were 
exported  from  Mauritius  10  years  ago,  but  lately  the 
shipments  have  dropped  down  to  about  1000  lbs. 


364       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  average  annual  imports  of  tortoise-shell  into  France 
have  been  as  follows  : — 

Kilogrammes.  Value  in  francs. 

In  the  ten  years  ending  1856         ...          13,389       ...  730,096 

■    ,,         1866         ...         31.629       ••■  1,251,922 

„                     „         1876         ...         42,30*5       •••  2,078,910 

Passing  now  to  the  food  uses  of  the  turtle — M.  Lacepede 
well  remarks  that  one  of  the  best  presents  which  nature 
has  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  equatorial  countries,  one  of 
the  most  useful  products  which  it  has  deposited  on  the  con- 
fines of  land  and  water,  is  the  turtle. 

The  flesh  of  some  species  of  marine  tortoises,  but 
particularly  of  the  green  turtle  {Chelonia  vddas),  is  in  the 

Fig.  27. 


Green  or  Edible  turtle. 


greatest  request  as  a  luxury  for  the  table,  at  least  in 
England,  and  the  animal  itself  is  an  object  of  commerce. 
The  arrival  of  a  cargo  of  "  lively  turtles  "  is  by  no  means 
a  thing  of  trifling  importance.  Of  late  years,  the  flesh  is 
imported  dried,  which  has  placed  it  within  the  reach  of 
general  consumers.  It  is  also  salted  in  some  quarters.  AH 
the  turtles  afford  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil,  which  is 
employed  for  various  purposes.  In  some  of  the  West 
Indian  islands  it  supplies,  when  fresh,  the  place  of  butter 
or  salad  oil  for  culinary  purposes,  and  it  is  also  used  for 
burning  in  lamps. 

Turtle  would    seem    to   have   been   first  introduced  in 


Tortoiseshell  and  the  Turtle  Fisheries,      365 

England  as  an  article  of  food  about  the  eighteenth  century, 
for  a  record  in  the  Gentlemaii s  Magazine,  under  date 
August  31,  1753,  shows  that  it  was  then  a  rarity  ;  but  they 
did  not  understand  how  to  dress  it.  It  states  :  "  A  turtle, 
weighing  350  lbs.,  was  ate  at  the  King's  Arms,  Pall  Mall  ; 
the  mouth  of  an  oven  was  taken  down  to  admit  the  part  to 
be  baked." 

The  locality  for  feasting  upon  the  turtle  now  has  been 
transferred  chiefly  to  the  precincts  of  the  City  ;  and  the 
Ship  and  Turtle,  Birch's  in  Cornhill,  the  Guildhall,  and 
Mansion  House,  are  the  chief  depots  of  consumption.  Steam 
communication  too  has  greatly  increased  the  imports  of 
this  reptile.  About  15,000  are  now  introduced  into  our 
ports,  and  from  thence  to  our  kitchens,  every  year.  They 
weigh  from  a  quarter  to  three  cwt.,  and  may  be  valued  in 
the  aggregate  at  about  ^8000,  or  more.  Not  that  all  these 
shielded  animals  so  arriving  can  be  called  "  lively  turtle," 
for  the  voyage  has  very  often  a  damaging  effect  upon 
them,  and  they  have  to  be  brought  into  flesh  before  they 
can  be  dished  up  for  an  alderman's  or  nobleman's  table. 

Dr.  Browne,  in  his  "  History  of  Jamaica,"  speaking  of 
the  turtle,  says  "it  is  delicate,  tender  food  while  young, 
but  as  it  grows  old  it  becomes  more  tough  and  gristly, 
and  is  not  so  agreeable  to  the  stomach  in  those  warm 
countries ;  the  juices,  hov/ever,  are  generally  reckoned 
great  restoratives,  and  often  observed  to  heal  and  smooth 
the  skin  in  scorbutic  and  leprous  habits." 

The  flesh  of  the  green  turtle  is  employed  in  the  West 
India  islands  generally,  in  all  the  maritime  cities  of  the 
United  States,  Brazil,  and  Peru,  in  England,  in  Africa,  the 
Cape  Verd  islands,  and  among  the  natives  who  inhabit 
the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  Guinea,  and  Congo,  the 
islands  of  Mauritius   and   Reunion   in    the    Indian  Ocean, 


366       The  Commercial  Pi^odiicts  of  the  Sea. 

at  the  English  Presidencies  of  India,  and  in  AustraHa. 
There  is  not  a  four-footed  animal,  a  voyager  tells  us,  the 
flesh  of  which  the  Japanese  esteem  like  that  of  the  kccame, 
or  turtle. 

The  flesh  of  the  turtle  is  thus,  we  find,  a  universal  food, 
if  we  except  some  of  the  States  of  Europe,  which  do 
not  seem  to  appreciate  it  as  a  delicacy.  I  may  add  that 
this  has  been  so  in  all  ages.  Diodorus  of  Sicily,  Pliny, 
and  Strabo  speak  of  it.  The  former  named  "  Cheloni- 
phages,"  certain  people  inhabiting  islands  at  the  entry  of 
the  Red  Sea,  whose  principal  occupation  was  catching 
turtle. 

The  flesh  is  cooked  in  all  ways.  It  is  made  into  soup  ; 
it  is  roasted  ;  it  is  made  into  fricassees,  stews,  and  pies. 
The  eggs,  intestines,  bones,  all  are  employed,  and  esteemed 
excellent. 

There  are  in  the  turtle  two  pieces  of  flesh  very  white, 
compared  to  knuckles  of  veal.  It  may  be  larded  and 
made  \n\.o  fricandcaux  and  pates,  equal  to  those  of  Rouen 
or  Pontoise.  The  turtle  is,  as  it  were,  the  fry  of  the  sea, 
for  every  part  of  the  flesh  is  edible.  The  bones,  being 
easily  saturated  with  the  gravy,  are  left  in  the  ragouts 
which  are  made,  and  the  fat,  which  is  very  fluid,  serves 
instead  of  butter  or  lard.  The  two  most  choice  food 
preparations  of  the  turtle  in  the  West  Indies  are  the 
soup  and  the  boucan  or  plastron.  The  soup  made  there 
is  flavoured  with  sherry,  and  seasoned  with  strong  spices, 
capsicums,  ginger,  cloves,  and  nutmeg.  It  is  considered  to 
be  excellent  when,  after  having  eaten,  one  is  obliged  to 
rest  with  the  mouth  wide  open,  and  cool  the  fevered  palate 
with  madeira  or  port.  So  that  to  appreciate  this  fiery  soup, 
the  taste  has  to  be  acquired. 

The    plastron,   or    boucaneered    turtle,    is     made    by 


Tortoiscshell  and  the  Turtle  Fishei'ies.      367 

mincing  the  flesh  fine  and  cooking  it  in  its  own  shell. 
Here  is  the  recipe  given  for  preparing  and  cooking  it : 
"  The  plastron  or  buckler  is  the  shell  of  the  belly,  on 
which  is  left  three  or  four  inches  of  flesh,  with  all  the  fat, 
this  being  green,  and  of  a  very  delicate  flavour.  The 
plastron  is  placed  in  the  oven.  It  is  seasoned  with  lemon 
juice,  capsicum  or  cayenne,  salt,  pepper,  cloves,  and  eggs 
beaten  up.  The  oven  ought  not  to  be  too  hot,  as  the  flesh 
of  the  turtle  being  tender  it  should  be  cooked  slowly. 
While  it  is  baking  the  flesh  must  be  pierced  from  time 
to  time  with  a  wooden  skewer,  so  that  the  gravy  may 
penetrate  all  parts.  The  shell  is  sent  up  to  table,  and  the 
meat  carved  out  from  it.  I  have  never  eaten  anything 
more  appetizing  or  better  flavoured."  This  is  not  the 
recipe  of  a  royal  chef  de  cuisine,  or  of  an  ordinary 
cook,  but  of  Father  Labat,  a  Dominican  monk,  and  we 
know  that  in  all  that  relates  to  the  table,  and  especially  the 
food  of  fast-days,  monks  are  the  authorities.  The  old 
buccaneers — from  whom  this  dish  was  named — having  no 
ovens,  cooked  their  turtle  in  a  trench  covered  with  lighted 
charcoal,  and  this  mode  of  cooking  was  said  to  be  pre- 
ferable. But  in  whatever  manner  dressed,  all  agree  that 
the  flesh  of  the  turtle  is  an  excellent  and  palatable  food. 

Green  turtle  soup  is  now  manufactured  in  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  A  manufactory  at  Key  West, 
Florida,  puts  up  in  air  tight  cans  for  exportation  200,000 
lbs.  yearly,  and  employs  10  vessels  and  60  men  in 
collecting  the  turtle.  It  is  sent  to  England  and  Cuba 
chiefly.  At  Jamaica  some  factories  are  also  doing  a  good 
business  in  a  preparation  worthy  of  the  gastronomic 
patronage  of  an  aldermanic  banquet,  so  rich  is  it  in  green 
fat  and  calipee,  calipash,  and  those  delicate  gelatinous 
morsels   appertaining   to   the   fins.     A   steady   supply    of 


368       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

turtle  is  obtained  monthly  through  the  West  India  and 
Pacific  steamers  from  Colon,  besides  those  brought  from 
the  Caymanas.  S484  lbs.  of  prepared  turtle,  valued  at 
;^356,  were  shipped  from  Jamaica  in  1874. 

Jamaica  is  the  principal  mart  in  the  West  Indies  to 
which  the  turtle  are  brought  from  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  from  Trinidad  to  Vera  Cruz,  principally  from 
Honduras  and  the  Tortugas.  From  Jamaica  they  are  sent 
to  England  and  the  United  States. 

Although  all  the  varieties  of  the  edible  turtle  are  pala- 
table, yet  they  are  distinguished  by  the  localities  from 
whence  they  are  obtained,  and  some  are  preferred  to 
others.  Those  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras  are  most  esteemed 
in  England.  Of  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  those  of  St.  Vin- 
cent are  considered  the  best.  Dampier  tells  us  that  they 
are  not  so  large  as  those  of  the  American  islands.  The 
flesh  is  white  and  intermixed  with  the  green  fat,  which  is 
firm  and  of  good  flavour. 

But  it  is  not  only  the  flesh  that  is  useful ;  the  fat, 
exposed  to  the  sun,  is  converted  into  oil.  When  fresh,  it  is 
good  for  frying  and  for  other  culinary  uses,  and  when  it 
becomes  rancid,  as  it  is  very  fluid  and  penetrating,  it 
serves  to  oil  leather,  to  burn,  and  to  lubricate  machinery. 
It  is  not  rare  to  obtain  100  lbs.  of  oil  from  a  single  turtle. 
Oil  is  obtained  from  two  species  of  turtle  very  abundant  in 
the  river  Orinoco — PeltoccpJialtis  Tracaya,  and  another. 
The  gigantic  luth  is  famous  on  account  of  its  valuable  oil. 

The  eggs  of  most  of  the  species  of  sea-tortoises  or  turtle 
are  excellent,  being  both  nutritious  and  agreeable  to  the 
taste.  They  have  no  firm  shell,  and  the  white  or  albu- 
minous portion  does  not  harden  on  cooking.  A  native  of 
Brazil  will  consume  as  many  as  20  or  30  at  a  meal,  and 
a  European  will  eat  a  dozen  for  breakfast.     They  make  an 


XortoisesheU  and  the   Turtle  Fisheries,      369 

excellent  omelet.  The  Indians  frequently  eat  them  raw, 
mixed  with  their  cassava  flour.  A  large  quantity  of  rich 
oil  is  made  from  the  immense  deposits  of  turtle  eggs  on  the 
banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  ;  each  turtle  lays  from 
100  to  200  eggs.  Several  thousand  persons  are  occupied  on 
the  banks  of  these  rivers  preparing  this  mantega  or  turtle 
oil  as  a  local  article  of  commerce. 


370      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea 


CHAPTER  II. 

MOTHER-OF-PEARL   AND   ITS   USES. 

Composition  of  nacreous  shells — Their  extensive  employment  in  art  and 
manufacture — Explanation  of  prismatic  colours — Varieties  of  mother-of- 
pearl  shells  entering  into  commerce — Purposes  to  which  they  are  applied 
— Statistics  of  imports — Diving  for  the  shells  in  the  Pacific — Pearl  fishery 
of  Western  Australia — Papier-mache  work — Other  nacreous  and  iridescent 
shells  used — The  ear-shells  or  Haliotids. 

Among  the  products  obtained  from  the  sea  which  are  used 
by  the  artist  and  art-manufacturer,  mother-of-pearl  and 
other  nacreous  and  iridescent  shells  form  important  articles 
of  commerce,  to  which  we  will  now  direct  attention. 

The  mother-of-pearl  shells  which  our  manufacturers 
transform  into  so  many  articles  of  ornament  and  utility, 
are  those  of  the  large  oysters,  obtained  in  many  different 
parts  of  the  world,  chiefly  the  shells  of  Meleagrina  margari- 
tifera. 

Shells  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  small 
proportion  of  animal  matter.  The  source  of  this  lime  is  to 
be  looked  for  in  their  food.  The  texture  of  shells  is  various 
and  characteristic.  Some  when  broken  present  a  dull 
lustre  like  marble  or  china,  and  are  termed  porcelaneous  ; 
others  are  pearly  or  nacreous;  some  have  a  fibrous  structure; 
some  are  horny,  and  others  are  glassy  and  transparent. 


Mot ker-of- Pearl  and  its  Uses.  371 

The  nacreous  shells  are  formed  by  alternate  layers  of 
very  thin  membrane  and  carbonate  of  lime  ;  but  this  alone 
does  not  give  the  pearly  lustre,  which  appears  to  depend 
on  minute  undulations  in  the  layers.  The  fibrous  shells 
consist  of  successive  layers  of  prismatic  cells  containing 
translucent  carbonate  of  lime.  The  exquisitely  fine  series 
of  furrows  upon  the  surface  sheds  a  brilliant  reflection  of 
colours  according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  light  falls  upon 
them. 

The  concrete  composition  of  mother-of-pearl,  being 
deposited  in  annual  layers,  is  excessively  hard,  and  requires 
good  tools  to  work  it  ;  sulphuric  and  other  powerful  acids 
are  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  circular  saw,  the  drill,  and 
the  file,  and  calcined  sulphate  of  iron  is  used  to  give  a 
polish  to  the  objects.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  have 
evidently  means  and  processes  for  working  this  material 
which  are  unknown  to  us,  for  they  give  a  finish  and  a 
polish  to  their  pearlwork  carvings  and  inlayings,  which  the 
skilful  artists  of  the  western  world  admire  and  envy. 

Besides  its  use  for  buttons,  studs,  the  handles  of  knives, 
fans,  book-covers,  card-cases,  and  other  fancy  articles, 
mother-of-pearl  is  also  employed  by  cabinet-makers,  piano- 
forte m.anufacturers,  papier-mache  workers,  and  others,  for 
inlaying.  The  range  of  articles  made  of  this  substance  is 
very  extensive  ;  pen-holders,  carved  brooches,  earrings, 
buckles,  sleeve-links,  little  boxes,  and  hundreds  of  others, 
might  be  enumerated. 

The  greatly  increased  use  of  this  material  in  various 
branches  of  manufacture,  particularly  those  of  an  orna- 
mental character,  has  more  than  doubled  the  price  of  the 
shells.  From  4000  to  5000  persons  used  to  be  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  at  Birmingham,  but  the  number  has  been 
greatly   reduced  in  consequence  of  other  countries  com- 


372       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

peting  with  us  in  the  manufacture.     France  now  works  up 

about   1500  tons  of  mother-of-pearl  annually,  while  North 

America  and  Austria  also  compete  with  us.     We  import 

from  1500  to  2000  tons  of  mother-of-pearl  annually,  worth 

about  ;^ioo,ooo. 

The   quantity   of  mother-of-pearl   and    other   nacreous 

shells  imported  into  France  is  thus  given  in   the  French 

official  returns : — 

Average  Annual  Imports. 

Kilogrammes.  Value  in  francs* 

In  the  ten  years  ending  respectively  1856     ...        788,994     ...        730,308 

„  „  „  1866     ...     1,197,898     ...     1,331,884 

M  „  „  1876     ...     1,376,132     •••     3,I59>943 

Sea-ear  shells  {Haliotis)  are  also  now  imported  into 
France  to  the  extent  of  134,550  kilogrammes  a  year. 

Button-making  is  one  of  the  largest  uses  to  which 
mother-of-pearl  is  turned.  The  blanks  ai"e  cut  out  of  the 
shell  with  the  annular  or  crown-saw  fixed  upon  a  lathe 
mandril.  They  are  split  into  two  or  more  sections,  accord- 
ing to  the  thickness  of  the  button  required.  They  are  then 
ground  down  and  cleaned,  turned  into  a  pattern,  and  after- 
wards "fancied,"  or  an  ornament  is  worked  on  the  face. 
Next,  the  holes  are  drilled  by  which  the  button  has  to  be 
attached  with  thread  to  the  garment,  and  lastly  they  are 
polished.  They  are  finally  sorted  and  mounted  on  cards 
of  a  gross  each,  which  sell  at  from  \s.  6d.  to  ?>s.  There  are 
some  firms  in  Birmingham  which  turn  out  500,000  gross 
annually.  Pearl  buttons  are  made  of  all  sizes,  from  the 
Brobdignag  ones  as  big  as  half  a  crown,  for  coats,  costing 
2s.  or  y.  each,  to  the  very  tiny  ones  used  for  mere  orna- 
ment. 

This  beautiful  material  has  been  as  valuable  to  science, 
by  supplying  confirmatory  evidence  of  the  truth  of  New- 
ton's views  respecting  the  origin  of  colour,  as  it  has  been 


Mother-of-Pearl  and  its  Uses.  373 

to  the  manufacturer,  in  furnishing  him  with  an  elegant 
material  for  the  formation  of  ornamental  articles  of  various 
kinds. 

Mother-of-pearl  is  the  interior  lamina;  or  scales  of  the 
shell  of  various  mollusca  living  in  the  Indian  seas.  The  true 
pearl  oysters,  as  they  are  called,  exhibit  the  beautifully 
variegated  colours  of  mother-of-pearl  ;  but  it  is  a  much 
larger  species  called  the  Mclcagrina  margaritifera,  which 
affords  the  most  exquisite  specimens.  That  many  shells 
have  a  certain  degree  of  resemblance  on  their  inner  sur- 
faces to  this  substance  we  have  every-day  proof ;  for,  if  we 
inspect  the  interior  of  a  common  oyster  shell,  we  shall 
frequently  find  that  it  exhibits  that  rich  play  of  tints  which 
constitutes  the  beauty  of  mother-of-pearl  ;  and,  with  respect 
to  mussels,  Reaumur  remarked,  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  that  those  caught  off  the  coast  of  Provence  had  the 
interior  of  their  shells  variously  tinted,  one  portion  of  each 
shell  being  pearl-like  in  its  appearance. 

No  one  can  avoid  being  struck  with  the  diversity 
and  delicacy  of  the  ever-varying  tints  of  colour  of  this 
beautiful  substance  ;  but  there  appears  to  have  been  no 
attempt  made  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  production 
until  Sir  David  Brewster  took  up  the  subject,  which  he  did 
with  great  success,  and  added  another  to  the  long  list  of 
services  which  he  has  rendered  to  optical  science. 

Sir  D.  Brewster  says  :  "  If  we  take  a  plate  of  regularly 
formed  mother-of-pearl,  having  its  two  opposite  surfaces 
ground  flat  (but  not  polished),  and  if,  with  the  eye  placed 
close  to  the  plate,  we  view  in  it  by  reflection  a  candle 
standing  at  the  distance  of  a  few  feet,  we  shall  observe  a 
dull  and  imperfect  image  free  from  colour.  This  image  is 
formed  on  the  ordinary  principles  of  reflection,  and  is  faint 
and  undefined,  owing  to  the  imperfect  reflecting  power  of 


374       '^^^^  Co7n77iercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  ground  surface.  On  one  side  of  this  imperfect  image 
will  be  seen  a  brighter  image,  glowing  with  the  prismatic 
colours.  On  the  outside  of  the  prismatic  image  will  be 
observed  a  mass  of  coloured  light,  nearly  at  the  same 
distance  beyond  the  prismatic  image  that  the  latter  is  from 
the  common  image.  These  three  images  are  always  in  the 
same  right  line,  but  their  distances  from  one  another  vary 
according  to  the  direction  in  which  they  are  viewed." 

Now,  it  was  in  making  certain  observations  on  the 
distances  of  these  images  from  one  another  that  Sir  David 
Brewster  lighted  upon  the  cause  of  them.  He  had  occasion 
to  fix  a  piece  of  mother-of-pearl  to  a  goniometer  (an 
instrument  for  measuring  angles),  by  a  cement  of  rosin  and 
beeswax.  Upon  removing  it  from  the  cement  when  in  a 
hard  state,  by  insinuating  the  edge  of  a  knife  and  making 
it  spring  off,  the  plate  of  mother-of-pearl  left  a  clean  im- 
pression of  its  own  surface  ;  and  he  was  surprised  to 
observe  that  the  cement  had  actually  received  the  property 
of  producing  the  colours  which  were  exhibited  by  the 
mother-of-pearl.  This  unexpected  phenomenon  was  at 
first  attributed  by  him,  and  by  several  gentlemen  who  saw 
the  experiment,  to  a  very  thin  film  of  mother-of-pearl 
detached  from  the  plate  and  left  upon  the  cement ;  but 
subsequent  experiments  convinced  him  that  this  was  a 
mistaken  opinion,  and  that  the  mother-of-pearl  really 
communicated  to  the  cement  the  properties  which  it  pos- 
sessed. 

This  circumstance  sufficiently  proved  to  Sir  D.  Brewster 
that  the  cause,  whatever  it  might  be,  of  the  colours  of 
mother-of-pearl  resided  on  the  surface,  and  did  not  depend 
upon  the  chemical  nature  of  the  substance.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  discover  what  was  the  configuration  of  the 
surface,  he  applied   a   microscope   with  high   magnifying 


Mother-of- Pearl  and  its  Uses.  375 

powers  to  the  surface,  when  he  perceived  a  grooved  struc- 
ture, closely  resembling-,  as  he  says,  "  the  delicate  texture  of 
the  skin  at  the  top  of  an  infant's  finger,  or  the  minute 
corrugations  which  are  often  seen  on  surfaces  covered  with 
varnish  or  oil  paint."  When  the  mother-of-pearl  was 
regular  in  its  structure  the  grooves  were  all  parallel,  and 
the  reflected  images  of  a  candle  appeared  all  in  one  straight 
line  ;  but  when  they  were  tortuous  or  curved,  the  images  of 
a  candle  were  not  in  a  straight  line. 

Here,  then,  was  proof  that  the  colours  were  produced  by 
the  effect  of  the  grooves  on  the  light  reflected  from  the 
surface  ;  for  on  applying  the  microscope  to  the  wax,  which 
exhibited  the  same  colours,  a  similar  assemblage  of  grooves 
was  observed.  A  consideration  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
theory  of  the  causes  of  the  colours  of  thin  bodies  (which  is 
not  of  a  nature  to  be  introduced  here)  has  made  it  demon- 
strable that  the  series  of  grooves  breaks  up  a  beam  of 
light  which  falls  upon  them,  into  a  number  of  separate 
parts,  each  of  which  is  reflected  on  the  eye  from  the 
bottom  and  side  of  the  little  grooves,  and  assumes  a  par- 
ticular colour  according  to  the  angle  at  which  it  is  reflected 

This  singularly  beautiful  appearance  can  be  transferred 
to  balsam  of  Tolu,  or  to  gum-arabic,  by  allowing  the  thin 
film  to  be  pressed  and  to  solidify  between  two  pieces  of 
mother-of-pearl ;  or  it  may  be  communicated  to  a  clean 
surface  of  lead,  or  to  the  fusible  metal  resulting  from  the 
compound  of  mercury  and  bismuth  by  hammering. 

With  respect  to  the  fineness  and  number  of  these 
grooves,  different  specimens  of  shell  give  very  different 
results.  Sometimes  a  magnifying  power  of  six  or  eight 
times  will  render  them  imperceptible,  while  in  other  in- 
stances 2000  grooves  have  been  counted  in  the  space  of  an 
inch,  and  in  others,  again,  the  number  was  wholly  incal- 


376       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

culable.  What  is  very  remarkable  is  that  grinding  will  not 
obliterate  these  grooves.  It  might  be  supposed  that  as  the 
grooves  must  be  separated  from  one  another  by  slight 
ridges,  these  ridges  might  be  worn  away  in  the  process  of 
grinding  But  as  the  ridges  wear  down,  so  do  the  grooves 
also  ;  so  that,  however  thin  the  film  may  be  rendered  by 
grinding,  the  grooves  and  the  colours  resulting  from  them 
are  still  developed.  If  the  surface  has  any  scratches  or 
dents,  the  bottoms  and  sides  of  the  scratches  are  grooved, 
just  as  if  the  surface  had  been  level. 

■If  we  view  a  candle  through  a  thin  film  of  mother-of- 
pearl,  or  of  gum  or  balsam  which  has  received  the  grooved 
impression,  coloured  images  of  the  candle  will  be  seen 
nearly  as  distinctly  as  when  the  light  is  reflected  from  its 
surface. 

If  a  scientific  statement  be  true,  there  are  generally 
means  for  proving  its  applicability  in  more  circumstances 
than  one.  Consequently,  if  the  colours  of  mother-of-pearl 
are  produced  by  grooves  on  its  surface,  any  mechanical 
contrivance  by  which  similar  grooves  may  be  produced  on 
any  substance  ought  to  give  similar  results.  This  has  been 
strikingly  confirmed  by  Mr.  Barton,  of  the  Royal  Mint. 
This  gentleman  has  constructed  an  engine  by  which  he  can 
engrave  on  the  surface  of  steel  and  other  metals  lines  so 
exquisitely  minute  that  from  2000  to  10,000  are  included 
in  a  single  inch.  These  surfaces,  when  viewed  by  daylight, 
present  but  few  appearances  of  colour  ;  but  when  the  light 
of  the  sun  or  of  gas  flames  falls  upon  them,  an  extremely 
brilliant  display  of  colours  is  the  result  ;  every  gradation 
of  tint  is  exhibited,  and  a  change  is  produced  by  every 
motion  of  the  object  or  of  the  source  of  illumination. 

There  are  six  or  eight  leading  varieties  of  mother-of- 
pearl  shells  entering  into  commerce. 


Mother-of -Pearl  and  Us   Uses.  2)77 

1.  Those  from  the  Arru  Islands,  v/hich  are  the  most 
valuable.  This  group,  situate  at  the  south-west  of  New 
Guinea,  extends  about  lOO  miles  from  north  to  south. 
From  130  to  150  tons  are  obtained  from  this  locality 
annually.  Pearl  oysters  are  abundant  on  parts  of  the 
coasts  of  New  Caledonia,  but  generally  at  too  great  depths 
to  be  obtainable.  There  are  three  sorts,  which  are  classi- 
fied in  commerce  as  bastard,  black-bordered,  and  silvery 
white,  the  last  being  the  most  esteemed. 

2.  The  fishery  next  in  importance  is  that  from  Sulu  to 
New  Guinea,  etc.  All  the  extensive  range  from  Cape 
Unsing,  passing  by  the  Tawi-Tawi  Islands  and  Sulu  as  far 
as  Baselan,  is  one  vast  continuous  bed  of  pearl  oysters.  The 
fishing  is  partly  carried  on  by  the  Malays  and  partly  by 
the  Chinese,  and  from  2500  to  3000  cwts.  are  sold  there 
annually.  The  Sulu  pearls  have  from  time  immemorial 
been  celebrated  and  praised  as  the  most  valuable  of  any  in 
the  world.  The  shells  are  distinguished  by  the  yellow 
colour  of  the  border  and  back,  which  renders  them  unfit  for 
ornamental  purposes,  but  they  are  largely  used  by  the 
Sheffield  cutlers.  Of  the  Sulu  Archipelago  we  know  com- 
paratively little.  The  people  of  Sulu  and  the  Lanuns  of 
Mindanao  are  the  most  daring  habitual  pirates  of  the 
Malayan  seas.  The  principal  articles  of  commerce  of  the 
Sulu  and  neighbouring  islands  are  the  produce  of  the 
fisheries,  namely,  pearls,  mother-of-pearl  shells,  tortoise- 
shell,  etc. 

3.  The  so-called  Bombay  shells  of  commerce  come  in 
reality  from  the  Persian  Gulf  fishery,  where  the  search  for 
pearls  is  vigorously  and  successfully  prosecuted.  Most 
of  the  shells  from  this  quarter  are  small,  and  generally 
dark  about  the  edges.  They,  however,  realize  more  than 
the  Panariia  and  Tahiti  shells.     The  imports  range  from 

17 


^yS       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

about  3000  to  5000  cwts.  per  annum.  They  are  chiefly 
used  in  Birmingham  for  buttons,  counters,  and  inlaying 
purposes. 

4.  The  shells  from  the  Red  Sea  fishery  bear  the  name 
of  "  Egyptian,"  as  they  are  sent  to  Alexandria.  For  a  long 
time  the  bulk  of  these  shells  were  forwarded  via  Trieste  to 
Vienna,  affording  employment  to  a  large  number  of  arti- 
sans, who  worked  for  the  American  market,  and  thus  dis- 
placed about  50  per  cent,  of  the  British-made  goods.  But 
after  the  great  rise  in  the  price  of  mother-of-pearl  shells, 
the  larger  proportion  of  the  Red  Sea  shells  was  again 
sent  for  some  years  to  London  and  Liverpool.  About 
12,000  cwts.  are  shipped  annually  from  Alexandria  ;  but 
we  only  get  at  present  about  half  this  quantity. 

5,  Panama  shells  from  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  about  the 
Pearl  Islands,  are  now  obtained  in  large  quantities.  The 
shells  from  the  island  of  St.  Joseph  (one  of  this  group)  are 
said  to  be  the  largest,  purest,  and  finest  in  the  ba}^^.  After 
1855  the  trade  began  to  be  conducted  on  an  important 
scale,  five  or  six  vessels  taking  cargoes  of  100  to  250  tons 
each  for  Great  Britain  ;  800  to  1000  tons  is  about  the 
average  annual  shipment  from  this  quarter. 

According  to  their  growth,  the  mother-of-pearl  shells 
imported  vary  in  size  from  about  the  palm  of  the  hand  to 
that  of  the  crown  of  a  hat.  The  smallest  are  the  South 
American,  weighing  nearly  half  a  pound  the  shell  (the  single 
valve)  ;  the  Bombay  and  Egyptian  weigh  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound;  the  South  Sea  black,  one  pound;  and 
the  Singapore  and  Manila  as  much  as  one  and  a  quarter 
pound  each.  Their  value  greatly  depends  upon  quality, 
for  they  arrive  in  bulk  without  any  attention  being  paid 
to  sorting,  and  keeping  separate,  the  dead  and  grubby 
or  worm-eaten    shells,   of  which  there  is  always  a  great 


Mother-of- Pearl  and  its  Uses.  379 

proportion  among  the  larger  shells.  The  medium  and 
small  sorts,  being  the  cleanest,  bring  higher  rates  in  com- 
parison with  the  larger  kinds.  They  should  always  be  of  a 
bold,  fine,  good,  clear  white  colour  and  substance,  and  not 
broken. 

Fashion,  in  this  as  in  other  manufactures,  has  much  to 
do  with  the  price  and  supply  of  the  raw  material.  About 
1 5  years  ago  the  black-edged  shell,  often  termed  "  smoked 
pearl,"  was  in  much  demand  for  the  large  dark  buttons 
worn  on  ladies'  paletots,  gentlemen's  waistcoats,  shooting 
coats,  etc.,  but  these  have  gone  somewhat  out  of  fashion. 
Other  shells  of  a  deep,  dark,  iridescent  hue  were  imported 
largely  some  30  or  40  years  ago,  and,  having  only  a 
nominal  value,  were  buried  in  piles  in  the  earth  at  Bir- 
mingham ;  a  demand  having  again  sprung  up  for  them, 
many  instances  have  occurred  in  which  they  have  been 
dug  up  and  used.  An  anecdote  was  recently  told  me  by  a 
large  wholesale  shell-merchant  in  London,  of  a  workman 
in  Birmingham  having  volunteered  to  dig  up  his  neigh- 
bour's yard  or  garden  free.  The  offer  being  declined,  the 
man  persisted,  agreeing  to  give  £^  if  he  might  be  allowed 
to  do  it,  and  cart  away  the  rubbish.  Consent  was  at  last 
obtained,  and  the  digger  cleared  i^20  by  the  pearl  shells  he 
thus  obtained  and  sold.  My  mformant  also  told  me  that 
the  Town  Hall  of  Birmingham  is  built  on  such  mounds  of 
these  shells  that  it  would  almost  pay,  at  present  prices,  to 
pull  it  down  and  rebuild  it  for  the  sake  of  the  shells  that 
could  be  thus  obtained. 

The  use  of  pearl  for  hafting  cutlery,  the  handles  of 
dessert  knives  and  forks,  fruit-knives,  etc.,  is  not  so  general 
as  it  used  to  be  ;  not  many  years  ago  100  tons  were  em- 
ployed annually  in  Sheffield  for  this  purpose.  The  only 
nacreous  shells  possessing  sufficient  thickness  for  Sheffield 


380       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

purposes  are  received  from  Manila  and  Singapore,  and  of 
late  years  from  Western  Australia.  So  variable  is  the 
supply  and  demand,  that  this  description  of  pearl  shell  has 
been  sold  within  the  last  50  years  at  almost  all  rates, 
between  £60  and  ^600  per  ton.  The  "  scales  "  (as  the  two 
flat  pieces  are  termed  which  are  riveted  to  the  central  plate 
of  the  haft  of  the  knife)  have  to  be  ground  down  on  stones, 
singly  and  by  hand,  to  a  level  surface  and  the  required 
thickness.  This  tedious  process  aids  in  making  shell  a 
costly  covering  for  cutlery,  and  as  the  substance  is  both 
hard  and  brittle,  when  the  handles  are  fluted  or  carved,  the 
price  is  of  course  still  further  enhanced. 

The  numerous  visitors  to  the  Paris  International  Exhi- 
bition of  1867  could  not  fail  to  be  struck  v/ith  the  mosaic 
pictures  in  mother-of-pearl,  shown  in  the  Siamese  Court, 
representing  the  idol  Buddha,  the  perfection  and  origin- 
ality of  which  excited  the  envy  of  amateurs.  The  King 
of  Siam,  when  informed  of  this  fact,  commanded  the 
artists  of  his  palace  to  execute  two  other  mosaics  ;  and  in 
order  to  render  them  more  agreeable  to  European  taste, 
they  were  made  to  represent  the  Saviour,  and  were  pre- 
sented at  the  close  of  the  Exhibition  to  the  Empress 
Eugenie,  in  order  that  they  might  adorn  some  Catholic 
chapel. 

The  commerce  in  mother-of-pearl  is  extensive  in 
Cochin  China,  where  this  substance  is  much  employed 
for  inlaying  choice  articles  of  furniture.  It  is  obtained 
mostly  in  the  Bay  of  Tirwar.  Some  of  the  other  French 
colonies  in  India  supply  small  quantities  of  mother-of- 
pearl.  The  shells  of  the  true  pearl  oysters  of  Ceylon 
{Avicuia  margaritifeni)  are  too  thin  to  be  of  use  in 
manufactures  for  their  nacre,  although  importations  have 
from  time  to  time  been  made  here,  in  the  hope  of  utilizing 


MotJier-of-Pearl  and  its   Uses.  381 

some  of  the  mounds  of  shells  which  have  accumulated 
on  the  shores  of  the  island  from  time  to  time  after  the 
periodical  fisheries  for  pearls. 

In  inlaying  with  pearl  shell  the  artist  traces  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  the  flowers  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil,  dipped 
in  a  size  made  of  varnish  and  turpentine  ;  upon  this  he 
lays  gold-leaf,  which  adheres  where  there  is  size,  and  the 
superfluous  gold  is  carefully  brushed  off  with  a  piece  of 
silk.  The  flowers  and  leaves  are  then  painted  in  colours, 
and,  when  dry,  the  picture  and  surface  of  the  article  is 
covered  with  a  coat  of  refined  white  varnish. 

The  second  method  of  inlaying  consists  in  sketching 
the  ornament  or  design  with  some  kind  of  varnish  not 
acted  upon  by  acid,  upon  the  piece  of  the  shell  ground  and 
polished  upon  revolving  wheels,  as  in  the  other  case,  and 
then  etching  away  the  surrounding  unpolished  portions  by 
means  of  an  acid.  This  process  possesses  several  advan- 
tages, one  of  which  is  that  it  is  much  cheaper  than  where 
the  design  is  cut  out  by  hand. 

But  little  taste  has  been  exhibited  in  the  decoration  of 
English  papier-mache  goods,  and  they  have  been  for  the 
most  part  vulgar  and  tawdry  in  design  and  execution. 
Even  the  Japanese,  with  all  their  good  taste  and  artistic 
skill,  have  lately  imitated  closely  our  style  of  papier-mache 
work,  without  any  of  that  refinement  and  originality  of 
design  of  which  they  are  so  capable. 

The  survey  thus  taken  of  the  various  uses  of  pearl 
shells  will  serve  to  show  how  extensive  is  the  range  of 
applications  to  which  they  are  put,  and  how  important  and 
valuable  the  commerce  in  an  article  of  this  kind  may 
become.  Every  day  develops  some  new  use  for  mother-of- 
pearl,  and  although  the  material  is  not  one  on  which  any 
great  artistic  skill  can  be  displayed,  still  trade  ingenuity 


382       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

and  inventive  genius  are  being  constantly  devoted  to  its 
utilization. 

We  may  now  turn  to  a  few  details  of  the  commerce  in 
pearl  shells.  It  was  only  in  1853  that  mother-of-pearl 
shells  were  deemed  of  sufficient  importance  to  appear  in 
the  Board  of  Trade  returns.  The  imports  from  that  period 
to  1870  were  as  follows.  No  official  returns  have,  however, 
been  published  since  : — 


Cwts. 

Value. 

1853  ... 

15,480 

— 

1854  ... 

...   36,644 

...  m,ios 

1855    ... 

20,120 

■■■    34,634 

IS56  ... 

...   42,032 

...    76,544 

1857    ... 

34,324 

...    57,819 

1858  ... 

25,108 

60,448 

1859  ... 

40,003 

...    67,859 

IS60  ... 

...    30,054 

.-    59,707 

1862  ... 

...   25,442 

...    38,677 

1863  ... 

..   20,322 

...    35,316 

1864  ... 

...    19,415 

30,416 

1865  ... 

27,262 

...    42,663 

1866  ... 

24,022 

...    41,746 

1867  ... 

."    36,175 

70,426 

1868  ... 

32,002 

...    64,869 

1869  ... 

...   37,662 

...    94,015 

1870  ... 

...   26,197 

...    76,489 

In  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  the  pearl  fishery 
was  actively  carried  on,  and  produced  great  wealth  to  the 
people  of  Lower  California.  The  value  of  the  shells  is 
sufficient  to  pay  the  expense  of  the  fishing,  leaving  the 
pearls  which  may  be  obtained  as  clear  gain.  The  best 
pearl-bearing  shells  are  found  at  between  14  and  18 
fathoms,  but  locality  has,  apparently,  much  influence  both 
on  the  shell  and  the  pearl,  not  only  in  quantity  but  also 
in  quality.  At  some  of  the  islands,  the  banks,  even  in 
shallow  water,  are  quite  choice  in  their  yield,  while  at 
others,  as  in  the  Isle  de  Puercos,  the  shells  are  tortuous 


Mother-of- Pearl  and  its   Uses.  383 

and  blistered,  with  dark  spots,  and  but  lightly  esteemed  in 
the  markets  of  Europe. 

Not  only  are  they  found  at  the  islands,  but  all  along 
the  shores  of  the  mainland,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that 
a  series  of  deposits  exists  from  the  Gulf  of  Darien  to  that 
of  California.  In  the  waters  of  the  latter  place,  and  along 
the  shores  of  Central  Mexico  and  Costa  Rica,  fishers  of 
shell  have  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  a  profitable  employment. 
Thirteen  or  fourteen  tons  of  pearl  shell  were  shipped  from 
Guayaquil  in  1 87 1. 

The  upper  portions  of  the  cathedral  and  some  of  the 
churches  of  Panama  are  studded  with  mother-of-pearl 
shells,  which  give  them  a  quaint  and  striking  aspect  under 
the  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays.  In  many  of  the  houses  at 
Manila,  also,  the  outer  side  of  the  verandah  is  composed  of 
coarse  and  dark-coloured  mother-of-pearl  shells  and  paper 
oyster  shells  set  in  a  wooden  framework  of  small  squares, 
forming  windows  which  move  on  slides.  Although  the 
light  admitted  through  this  sort  of  window  is  much  inferior 
to  what  glass  would  give,  the  material  has  the  advantage  of 
being  strong,  and  is  not  very  liable  to  be  damaged  by  the 
severe  weather  to  which  it  is  occasionally  exposed  during 
some  months  of  the  year. 

From  the  province  of  Chiriqui  several  shipments  have 
at  sundry  times  been  made  by  merchants  of  Panama,  of 
shells  obtained  from  deposits  in  that  neighbourhood^ 
and  boatmen  who  bring  the  ordinary  edible  oyster 
to  market  there  assert  that  banks  of  the  pearl-bearing 
mollusc,  at  not  very  distant  intervals,  abound  in  every 
direction  on  the  coast.  The  small  shells,  of  which  many 
thousands  are  taken  out  and  cast  away,  are  of  no  value  ; 
but  the  full-grown  and  well-matured  shells,  rich  in  their 
iridescent  nacreous  beauties,  are  in  high  estimation  and  of 


384       The  CominerciaL  Products  of  the  Sea. 

superior  market  worth.  The  fishery  has  not  been  prose- 
cuted with  that  vigour  it  might  be,  in  consequence  of  the 
fear  entertained  of  sharks,  sword-fish,  alhgators,  and  other 
ravenous  monsters  which  infest  the  shores  of  the  coasts, 
but  which  are  so  comparatively  rare  about  the  islands  as 
not  to  create  great  alarm  among  the  divers. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  within  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century,  by  companies  and  individuals,  to  employ 
diving-bells  and  apparatus,  but  in  every  instance  some  fault 
or  difficulty  has  occurred  to  discourage  the  efforts.    Besides 

Fig.  28. 


Diving  for  pearl  shells  at  Panama. 

the  obstructions  caused  by  the  irregularities  of  the  sea 
bottom  to  a  complete  adjustment  of  the  machines,  much 
inconvenience  was  experienced  in  moving  about  from  bank 
to  bank,  it  being  necessary  on  every  occasion  to  unship  the 
derricks  and  other  fixtures,  so  as  to  enable  the  vessel  to  be 
sailed  from  one  fishing  ground  to  another.  The  diving 
armour  met  with  no  favour  among  the  natives,  who  could 
not  be  induced  to  adopt  it. 

The  fishery  for  mother-of-pearl  shells  has  now  been 
carried  on  upon  the  California  coast  in  the  vicinity  of 
Santa  Barbara  for  some   10  or   12  years  past,  and  is  also 


Mother- of -Pear I  and  its   Uses.  385 

prosecuted  on  the  southern  coast.  Immense  quantities 
of  pearl  shells  are  at  present  used  in  the  United  States  in 
the  manufacture  of  buttons,  card-cases,  portmonnaies,  and 
other  fancy  articles.  Many  of  the  islands  about  the  Cali- 
fornia coast  are  literally  covered  with  the  finest  shells  for 
this  purpose  found  in  the  world.  On  the  shores  of  Anacapa, 
off  Santa  Cruz,  a  few  men  easily  load  a  schooner. 

Shells  for  ornament  are  equally  appreciated  by  the 
aboriginal  races,  and  some  of  their  modes  of  application 
for  decorative  purposes  are  effective  and  curious.  Many 
of  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  wear  a  large  polished  pearl  shell 
appended  in  front  to  their  corslet,  and  their  shields  are 
ornamented  with  these  shells.  In  the  ethnological  room 
of  the  British  Museum  many  examples  of  the  uses  of  pearl 
shell  by  the  Pacific  Islanders  may  be  seen.  There  is  espe- 
cially worthy  of  notice  an  elaborate  corslet  from  Polynesia, 
studded  with  mother-of-pearl  shells,  and  beautifully  orna- 
mented with  a  kind  of  deep  swinging  fringe  made  of 
minute  pieces  of  pearl  shell,  skilfully  cut  and  threaded 
together,  evidencing  great  skill  and  ingenuity  in  the  absence 
of  European  tools  and  appliances.  The  Pacific  Islander 
plunges  beneath  the  waves  to  seek  the  joints  of  his  simple 
necklace,  or  to  supply  his  brothers  of  the  Western  World 
with  highly  prized  material  for  more  elaborate  ornaments. 
The  glittering  ear-shell  and  mother-of-pearl  furnish  the 
New  Zealanders  and  Fijians  with  attractive  fish-hooks  to 
ensnare  their  prey. 

The  export  of  mother-of-pearl  from  Manila  was,  in  1874, 
1035  piculs  of  133  lbs.  each  ;  and  in  1875,  1378  piculs. 
Bold  white  shells  from  Manila  realized  at  the  London  sales 
in  January,  1876,  £\2  to  £\2  ^s. ;  bold  and  medium  kinds, 
£i\  ys.  6d.;  chicken,  £j  ^s.  to  £^  \ys.  6d.;  defective 
wormy,  £6  2s.  6d.  to  £y  lys.  6d. 


386       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  author  of  "  Rovings  in  the  Pacific  "  thus  speaks  of 
the  pearl  divers  in  the  South  Seas  : — "  It  is  a  curious  sight 
to  watch  the  divers  :  with  scarcely  a  movement  they  will 
dart  to  the  bottom  like  an  arrow,  examine  beneath  every 
protruding  rock,  and  on  continuing  their  investigations,  by 
a  simple  movement  of  the  arm  will  propel  themselves 
horizontally  through  the  water,  and  this  at  the  depth  of 
seven  and  eight  fathoms.  I  timed  several  by  the  watch ; 
and  the  longest  period  I  knew  any  of  them  to  keep  beneath 
the  water  was  a  minute  and  a  quarter,  and  there  were  only 
two  who  accomplished  this  feat.  One  of  them,  from  his 
great  skill,  was  nicknamed  by  his  companions  the  '  Ofai ' 
(stone).  Rather  less  than  a  minute  was  the  usual  duration. 
In  fine  weather  they  can  see  the  shells,  when  if  the  water  is 
deep,  they  dive  at  an  angle  for  them  ;  and  as  the  shells  ad- 
here firmly  to  the  coral  by  strong  beards,  it  requires  no  little 
force  to  detach  them.  I  was  astonished  on  one  occasion  at 
witnessing  a  diver,  after  one  or  two  ineffectual  attempts  to 
tear  away  a  large  oyster,  sink  his  legs  beneath  him,  and 
getting  a  purchase  with  his  feet  against  the  coral,  use  both 
his  hands  and  fairly  drag  it  off.  When  they  dive  in  very 
deep  water,  they  complain  of  pains  in  the  ears,  and  they 
sometimes  come  up  with  their  noses  bleeding;  but  it  is 
rarely  that  you  can  get  them  to  attempt  such  diving,  as,  let 
the  shells  be  ever  so  abundant,  they  will  come  up  and  swear 
there  are  none  :  the  exertion  from  the  great  pressure  is  too 
painfully  distressing.  It  has  frequently  happened,  after  a 
set  of  worn-out  divers  have  sworn  that  no  shells  could  be 
obtained,  that  a  fresh  set  has  come  and  procured  from  50 
to  60  tons  without  difficulty." 

The  diving  for  pearl  shells  is  one  of  the  principal  oc- 
cupations among  the  natives  of  the  Oceanic  Islands  in  the 
Pacific.     A  diver  will  collect  from  20  to  40  shells  per  day 


Mother-of-Pea7'l  and  its   Uses.  387 

according  to  the  state  of  the  sea.  The  finest  are  met  with 
on,  sandy  bottoms  and  in  the  currents.  The  fishery  is 
extensively  prosecuted  in  the  archipelago  of  the  islands  of 
Pomotou  and  Gambler,  and  the  shells  are  chiefly  taken  to 
Tahiti,  where  they  form  a  principal  article  of  export, 
averaging  about  1000  tons  a  year.  The  shells  from  the 
Pacific  are  fine,  thick,  and  of  a  silvery  white.  The  fishery 
about  the  Gambler  Islands  is  carried  on  from  January  to 
April.  One  of  the  neighbouring  islands — Crescent  Island — 
furnishes  a  smaller  oyster  of  straw-coloured  hue. 

The  export  of  mother-of-pearl  shells  from  Tahiti  varies 
greatly.  In  1845  324  tons  were  shipped.  It  then  dropped 
to  an  average  of  about  200  tons  up  to  1852.  In  1853  as 
much  as  600  tons  were  shipped.  The  exports  then  fell  off 
to  almost  none,  but  in  1868,  owing  to  an  increased  demand, 
rose  to  420  tons.  In  1873  the  shipments  were  328  tons, 
and  in  1874  410  tons,  valued  at  ;^ 20,530.  An  export  duty 
of  ^i  \2s.  per  ton  has  been  imposed  since  January  i, 
1875,  in  order  to  check  the  taking  of  undersized  shells  of 
comparatively  small  value  from  the  pearl  oyster  banks. 

Besides  the  above  shells,  296  tons  of  what  are  called 
Maara  shells  {Turbo  inargaritacens),  valued  at  ^^1480,  were 
shipped  from  Tahiti  in  1874. 

Mother-of-pearl  shell  to  the  value  of  ;!^6oo,  and  pearls 
valued  at  ^1600,  were  shipped  from  the  Navigator's  Islands 
in  1858. 

In  the  Paomotus  Islands,  mother-of-pearl  shell  was  in 
1873  only  worth  twopence  to  threepence  per  pound  ;  in 
the  following  year  the  price  advanced  to  sixpence  per 
pound. 

The  pearl  oyster  of  the  Pacific  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  interior  lagoons  of  certain  of  the  great  coral  atolls. 
The  necessities  of  its  existence  appear  to  be  clean,  grow- 


388       The  Commercial  Products  of  tJte  Sea. 

ing  coral,  to  which  to  attach- itself,  free  from  sand  or  drift, 
and  a  considerable  influx  and  outflow  of  the  sea  at  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tide.  That  they  are  not  absolutely 
confined  to  lagoons,  but  exist  also  in  great  quantity  under 
the  tremendous  breakers  which  beat  upon  the  outer  reefs 
(as  also,  probably,  at  greater  depths  in  the  sea  beyond 
them),  is  a  fact  not  generally  known,  but  is  nevertheless 
true.  As  a  proof  of  this,  there  are  to  be  found,  chiefly  on 
the  windward  side  of  all  coral  reefs  enclosing  lagoons 
(and  especially  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year),  incredible 
numbers  of  microscopic  pearl  oysters,  and  others  of  larger 
size,  up  to  the  diameter  of  a  shilling,  tossed  about  in  the 
foam  of  the  breakers,  and  travelling  with  the  flood  tide  over 
the  reef  towards  the  calm  waters  of  the  lagoon.  These 
have  been  spawned  in  the  deep  sea,  or  in  the  coral  caves 
under  the  foaming  surf,  which  thunders  on  the  outer  reef, 
and  seek  by  some  instinct  of  their  nature  to  make  thei/ 
own  way  into  the  placid  waters  enclosed  within  that^tony 
barrier.  The  oysters  which  are  spawned  within  the  lagoon 
are  formed  in  congeries  attached  to  the  parent  shells,  or 
clustered  in  vast  numbers,  fastened  to  one  another,  in  the 
holes  of  the  rocks.  The  shell  comes  to  maturity  in  about 
seven  years,  at  which  time  its  average  weight  is  one 
pound,  exclusive  of  the  fish  contained  in  it.  The  usual  size 
is  about  that  of  a  soup-plate,  or  10  inches  in  diameter, 
although  in  rare  instances  they  arrive  at  as  much  as  18. 
After  this  the  creature  perishes,  detaches  itself  from  the 
rock,  opens  to  close  no  more,  the  animal  decays,  and  the 
shell,  becoming  coated  with  coral  and  other  stony  parasites 
within  and  without,  loses  all  value. 

The  pearl  oyster  is  gregarious.  Wheresoever  one  is  met 
with,  there  are  of  a  surety  vast  numbers  somewhere  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.    They  are  found  in  coral  caverns,  hang- 


Mother-of- Pearl  and  its   Uses.  389 

ing  from  the  roof,  linked  together  after  the  manner  of  a 
chain,  or  clustered  in  large  piles,  firmly  attached  to  one 
another.  This  attachment  is  only  temporary.  It  has  been 
generally  believed  that  the  pearl  oyster  is  a  fixture,  and 
certainly  the  appearance  of  the  cable  by  which  it  binds 
itself  to  the  rock  would  warrant  that  supposition.  This 
attachment  has  the  look  of  a  large  tassel,  consisting  of  an 
infinite  number  of  slender  filaments,  each  about  the  thick- 
ness of  a  packthread.  It  springs  from  the  body  of  the 
mollusc,  and  passes  through  an  orifice  between  the  shells, 
immediately  next  the  hinge.  During  life  its  colour  is 
iridescent,  changing  from  a  dark  green  to  a  golden  bronze, 
exhibiting  while  in  motion  various  prismatic  hues.  It 
fastens  itself  to  the  rugged  rocks  with  so  determined  a  hold 
as  frequently  to  require  the  utmost  strength  of  a  powerful 
man  to  tear  it  from  them.  Under  these  circumstances  it 
seems  incredible  that  the  mollusc  should  move  from  place 
to  place.  But  to  borrow  the  words  of  Galileo,  "  Neverthe- 
less, it  does  move  ; "  and  under  the  influences  of  certain 
causes,  these  bivalves  are  in  the  habit  of  migrating  en  masse, 
not  for  any  great  distance,  it  is  true,  yet  from  one  coral 
shelf  to  others  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  As  con- 
cerns the  reason  of  their  exodus,  it  may  possibly  be 
an  alteration  in  the  temperature  of  the  water,  caused  by 
a  change  of  weather,  or  a  scarcity  of  the  animalculae  upon 
which  the  oyster  feeds. 

The  presence  of  drift-sand  is  obnoxious  to  its  com- 
fort ;  consequently,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  banks  and 
crags  composed  of  that  kind  of  debris  it  will  not  live. 
In  lagoons  which  have  no  tideway  it  is  not  found,  and 
if  introduced  there,  perishes.  The  experiment  has  fre- 
quently been  tried,  and  its  failure  seems  traceable  to 
the    following    cause  : — Wheresoever    sea-water    becomes 


390       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

stagnant  in  the  lagoons  of  the  Pacific,  there  makes  its 
appearance  in  great  numbers  a  hideous  reptile,  resembling 
a  centipede,  which  is  found  from  the  smallest  conceivable 
size  up  to  a  foot  long.  These  enter  and  devour  the  oyster. 
They  may  have  other  enemies,  but  this  one  is  the  most 
notable. 

Under  favourable  conditions,  the  life  of  the  pearl  oyster 
would  seem  to  be  one  of  uninterrupted  ease  and  passive 
enjoyment.  Himself  a  creature  most  gloriously  beautiful, 
his  existence  is  passed  among  forms  of  the  most  surpassing 
loveliness,  bathed  in  the  cool,  bright,  unpolluted  waters  of 
the  main.  There  he  adheres  to  the  side  of  some  caverned 
cliff,  covered  with  marine  vegetation,  spreading  out  his 
ample  beard  (of  which  the  dazzling  colours,  when  viewed 
in  the  light  of  the  refracted  sunshine,  beaming  through  the 
limpid  element  in  which  he  dwells,  are  like  the  tints  of  the 
opal),  and  sweeping  around  him  his  snaky  tongue,  he  feeds 
daintily  and  waxes  fat,  devoting  the  surplus  of  his  nacreous 
secretion  to  the  production  of  a  precious  gem. 

It  may  be  as  well  to  mention  here  that  pearls  are,  under 
certain  conditions,  liable  to  a  form  of  decay,  or  loss  of 
brilliancy,  which  impairs  their  value.  A  good  preservative 
against  such  a  contingency  is  to  keep  them  in  magnesia. 

Surely,  his  lines  are  cast  in  pleasant  places,  and  his 
existence  might  be  one  of  unalloyed  happiness  ;  neverthe- 
less, he  has  his  afflictions.  Almost  all  v/ell-grown  pearl 
oysters  are  infested  with  parasites,  in  the  shape  of  a  scarlet 
lobster,  about  the  size  of  a  shrimp.  This  pestilent  intruder 
introduces  himself  into  the  shell  in  conjunction,  as  it 
appears,  with  the  partner  of  his  joys,  and  making  them- 
selves a  bed  under  the  fat,  soft  body  of  their  victim,  resist- 
ing all  attempts  to  dislodge  them,  rear  their  interesting 
progeny,  and  cause  no  end  of  pain  and  annoyance. 


Mothei'-o/-Pearl  and  its   Uses.  391 

The  true  cause  of  the  production  of  pearls  is  supposed 
by  many  to  be  a  disease  in  the  animal,  for  the  following 
reasons  : — In  the  first  place,  wheresoever  a  pearl  fishery 
is  found  of  which  the  oysters  grow  to  great  size,  with  a 
clean,  smooth  outer  surface,  free  from  knots,  humps,  worm 
holes,  or  other  blemishes — in  fact,  presenting  every  appear- 
ance of  healthy  and  uninterrupted  development  (which  is 
particularly  noticeable  in  lagoons  where  the  shells  are  wide 
apart) — there  will  the  pearls  be  extremely  scarce  ;  so  much 
so  that  it  would  not  pay  to  prosecute  such  a  fishery  for  the 
profit  to  be  derived  from  the  pearls  alone,  although  the 
shell  is  proportionately  more  valuable.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  shells  are  closely  crowded  together,  deformed  by 
pressure,  abnormally  thickened  about  the  base,  having 
laminse  of  which  their  outside  is  composed  forced  at  their 
edges  into  an  unnatural  contact,  so  as  to  induce  a  belief 
that  their  growth  had  been  stunted,  as  likewise  being 
studded  with  warts  and  knots  of  a  scabby  appearance, 
being,  moreover,  honeycombed  with  small  worm  holes 
which  penetrate  more  or  less  deeply  into  the  nacre — there 
will  pearls  most  exceedingly  abound.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  as  many  as  100  pearls  to  be  found  in  such  a  shell, 
though  the  presumption  is  that  where  they  exist  in  such 
great  numbers,  very  few,  and  frequently  none  whatever, 
will  possess  any  market  value. 

But  of  the  presence  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the 
production  of  a  pearl  inside  of  an  oyster  there  is  one  very 
significant  and  certain  sign,  the  faculty  of  detecting  which 
can  only  be  acquired  by  practice.  While  the  animal  is  alive, 
the  two  flat  surfaces  which  appear  at  the  back  of  the  hinge 
present  very  beautiful  prismatic  colours  ;  the  cable  which 
attaches  it  to  the  rock  is  in  like  manner  remarkable.  When 
the  shell   contains    pearls,  the  prevailing  colour  of  these 


392       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

portions  is,  while  in  vigorous  life  (as  when  just  removed 
from  the  water),  a  certain  shade  of  bronze,  brilh'ant  but 
evanescent,  which  is  not  easy  to  describe,  but  very  easy  to 
be  recognized  by  the  experienced  fisher.  By  this  means  a 
man  well  used  to  the  work  will,  with  great  certainty,  pick 
out  from  a  boat-load  of  living  oysters  at  least  75  per  cent, 
of  those  which  contain  pearls. 

In  the  Pacific,  all  oysters  are  opened  with  a  knife, 
which,  if  carefully  performed,  is  the  best  plan.  The  best 
instrument  for  this  purpose  is  a  common  table-knife  of 
good  steel,  ground  thin  until  the  blade  is  flexible,  and 
fitted  into  a  stout  handle.  A  skilful  operator  will  open  a 
ton  of  shells  in  an  ordinary  day's  work,  and  not  miss  the 
pearls  if  there  be  any.  It  cannot  be  done  rapidly  without 
frequently  cutting  the  hands  (sometimes  seriously),  as  the 
edges  are  as  sharp  as  glass.  But  men  v/orking  for  them- 
selves, with  a  prospect  of  considerable  gain,  do  not  mind 
such  accidents.  The  excitement  is  like  that  of  gold-mining. 
White  men,  well  up  to  this  work,  will  never  (if  they  can 
avoid  it)  allow  valuable  shells  to  be  opened  by  any  other 
hands  than  their  own,  as  the  natives  are  sure  to  steal  them 
if  they  have  an  opportunity. 

When  the  shells  are  landed,  the  usual  custom  of  the 
fisherman  is  to  sort  them  into  two  piles,  such  as  he  sup- 
poses to  contain  pearls  to  be  opened  by  himself,  the  rest 
by  the  natives.  The  empty  shells  ought  to  be  at  once 
placed  under  a  shed,  to  protect  them  from  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  so  preserve  their  beautiful  colours.  In  hard  times 
it  is  usual  for  men  to  eat  the  animal  which  comes  out  of 
the  pearl  shell,  cooking  the  residue  in  an  oven  of  stones, 
and  then  drying  them  in  the  sun  ;  but  they  are  coarse, 
rank,  and  disagreeable  as  food,  though  perfectly  wholesome. 
The  pearls  are  usually  lodged  in  the  rong  muscle  of  the 


Motkei'-of- Pearl  and  its   Uses.  393 

fish,  out  of  which  the  cable,  as  it  is  called,  springs.  This  is 
about  the  thickness  of  that  part  of  a  man's  hand  which  is 
next  to  the  thumb.  The  flesh  being  semi-transparent,  the 
pearls  are  at  once  seen  from  their  brightness,  which  refracts 
the  light.  Their  presence  is  easily  detected.  Sometimes 
they  exist  in  great  numbers  in  one  mollusc,  but  in  such 
cases  they  are  generally  small  and  ill-formed.  There  are 
other  pearls  which  are  found  loose  in  the  shell,  and  these 
are  always  of  very  fine  quality,  perfectly  round,  and  very 
often  large.  If  the  shell  be  carelessly  opened,  such  a  pearl, 
if  it  be  in  it,  invariably  falls  out,  being  carried  away  by  the 
beard  in  the  agony  of  the  mollusc  when  divided  by  the 
knife,  and  is  thus  almost  sure  to  be  ejected  from  the  shell. 
Thus  it  has  been  that  upon  the  Pacific  fisheries  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  most  valuable  of  these  gems  have 
been  irretrievably  lost,  for  the  reason  that  the  natives,  how- 
soever experienced,  never  look  for  a  pearl  elsewhere  than  in 
the  muscle  of  the  fish.  They  squat  down  on  the  sand,  place 
the  shell  between  their  legs,  stick  in  the  knife,  and  wrench 
it  open  ;  and  if  there  be  one  of  these  beard  pearls  (which 
are  often  worth  a  hundred  of  the  others),  down  it  slips  into 
the  sand,  and  is  never  seen;  but  as  a  rule  not  more  than 
one  oyster  out  of  a  thousand  contains  a  pearl  upon  the 
beard. 

Fine,  calm  weather  is  most  favourable  to  pearl-fishing, 
but  not  indispensable,  as  the  amphibious  natives  of  some 
groups  seek  the  shell  by  swimming  w^ith  their  heads  below 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  having  discovered  it,  inhale  a 
good  draught  of  air,  and  then  go  down  and  fetch  up  as 
many  as  they  can  readily  lay  hold  of.  Polynesian  divers 
do  not  use  any  stones  to  sink  them,  or  any  apparatus  to 
close  the  nostrils,  as  do  the  Singalese.  They  will  stay 
under  water  about  a  minute  or  two,  sometimes  longer,  and 


394       '^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

can  bring  up  shell  (if  put  to  it)  out  of  20  fathoms.  It 
requires  some  extra  inducement  to  get  them  down  that 
depth,  and  of  course  they  cannot  stick  long  at  it  ;  but 
Penrhyn  islanders,  Paomotans,  or  Rapa  men,  can  do  it  if 
they  like.  Where  shells  are  found  at  that  depth,  they  are 
of  enormous  size,  as  much  as  18  inches  in  diameter,  so 
that  a  pair,  when  opened  out  by  the  hinge,  will  measure  a 
yard  across.  This  work  of  pearl-diving  is  very  hard,  and 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  aggravated  by  its  radiation  from  the 
still  water  of  the  lagoons,  is  frightful.  The  divers  rub  their 
bodies  with  oil,  otherwise  their  bronzed  skin  would  peel  off 
in  huge  blisters. 

On  many  islands  women  are  more  skilful  at  this  work 
than  men,  as,  being  accustomed  from  early  life  to  supply 
cockles  and  clams  to  the  lords  of  the  creation,  they  are  the 
better  divers.  They  are  paid  in  cloth — i.e.,  cotton  print — 
tobacco,  hardvv^are,  and  ornaments,  such  as  earrings,  beads, 
dyed  feathers,  etc.,  and  other  articles  of  small  trade  too 
various  to  enumerate,  the  rates  of  payment  not  being  by 
any  means  alike  upon  different  islands,  as  also  the  articles 
of  barter  most  greedily  sought  after  in  some  fisheries  not 
being  in  demand  upon  others,  which  necessitates  a  trading 
agent  to  have  some  previous  knowledge  of  the  various 
localities  where  the  shell  is  obtainable,  and  of  the  especial 
likings  of  the  natives,  in  order  to  drive  a  successful  traffic. 

Many  old  fisheries  out  of  which  great  profit  has  been 
made  (such  as  Tukau,  from  whence  Messrs.  Hort  Brothers,  in 
1856-57,  obtained,  in  less  than  12  months,  120  tons  of  shell, 
with  1 5  Paomotu  divers,  and  the  help  of  the  wives  which  they 
took  to  themselves  upon  the  ground)  are  now  supposed  to 
be  exhausted,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  Mangarongaro,  where 
there  has  been  for  some  time  back  an  outcry  about  small 
shell)  so  far  depreciated  by  constant  fishing,  and  not  giving 


Mother -of- Pearl  and  its   Uses.  395 

them  time  to  grow  to  maturity,  as  to  be  now  of  little  value. 
This  is  a  mistake  in  both  instances  ;  the  best  of  the  shell 
lies  still  in  deep  water,  and  in  the  great  coral  caverns 
underneath  the  exhausted  shelves,  from  whence  the  savages, 
by  judicious  persuasion,  can  be  easily  induced  to  bring 
them  to  the  surface.  There  are  some  lagoons  in  which 
any  great  quantity,  and  in  some  cases  no  shell  whatever, 
is  now  supposed  to  exist ;  yet  there  are  at  those  places  very 
considerable  deposits,  which  have  been  overlooked  for  the 
reason  that  the  fishers,  not  finding  any  in  the  shoal  water 
had  not  thought  to  look  elsewhere.  The  shallow  water  at 
these  places  is  skirted  by  sandy  bays,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  (as  before  stated)  this  mollusc  cannot  live. 
Again,  where  the  lagoons  run  into  great  bights,  where  there 
is  no  perceptible  current,  the  shoal  water  is  too  hot  for 
them  ;  although  in  the  deep  hollows  they  exceedingly 
abound,  but  in  such  manner  that  they  are  not  easy  to  be 
seen,  unless  a  man  goes  down  purposely  to  look  for  them. 
Pearl  oysters  are  like  sponges — certain  conditions  are 
necessary  to  their  development ;  whereas,  in  other  localities 
presenting  apparently  the  same  natural  aspects,  they  are 
not  found  at  all.  * 

The  fishery  for  mother-of-pearl  shells  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia is  prosecuted  on  the  north-west  coast,  about  1300 
miles  from  Fremantle ;  vessels  ranging  from  five  ton  cutters 
to  large  schooners  are  engaged  in  it,  the  work  being  carried 
on  by  native  and  Malay  divers.  The  natives  are  very 
expert  at  diving,  but  cannot  be  depended  on  to  remain 
steadily  at  work,  and  though  the  Malays  have  to  be  paid 
better  wages  they  are  found  more  profitable  and  far  less 
trouble.  The  shells  average  about  one  pound  each,  and 
are  worth  £-]  to  ;^8  the  cwt.  ;  so   that  on   a  good   bank 

*  H,  B.  Steindale  in  Journal  of  Af^plied  Science. 


39^       TJie  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  pursuit  is  very  fruitful.  The  experience  of  several 
seasons  tends  to  show  that  the  banks  are  recovered  in 
the  course  of  a  year  or  two,  and  that  the  industry  has 
thus  a  tolerably  permanent  character.  The  nearest  port 
is  at  Nicol  Bay,  where  there  is  a  town  and  a  Government 
staff.  All  boats  engaged  in  the  fishery  pay  a  license  of 
.i^i  per  ton  on  the  registered  tonnage,  but  never  less  than 
;^5  or  more  than  £^0,  and  the  revenue  derived  from  this 
source  is  appropriated  to  services  connected  with  the 
northern  settlements. 

The  fishery  for  pearls  is  carried  on  at  Shark's  Bay, 
latitude  about  26°,  under  the  same  regulations  and  in  a 
somewhat  similar  manner.  In  winter,  however,  iron-wire 
dredges  are  substituted  for  diving,  and  these  are  drawn 
across  the  banks.  Hitherto  the  small  shells  containing 
pearls  have  been  found  almost  exclusively  in  an  inlet, 
named  (curiously  enough)  Useless  Harbour,  which  is  about 
ten  miles  wide,  the  banks  lying  in  the  middle  of  it.  The 
men  camp  on  shore,  and  the  boats,  which  are  chiefly  small 
cutters,  go  out  at  eight  a.m.  till  two  or  three  p.m.  A  boat 
with  four  men  may  bring  back  eight  sacks  of  shells,  and 
these  are  thrown  on  to  the  large  heap  on  shore,  for  the 
animal  to  rot,  when  the  shells  are  easily  opened.  Of  course, 
the  product  is  more  uncertain  than  in  the  shell  fishery.  You 
may  find  large  and  valuable  pearls,  but  they  are  the  ex- 
ception ;  the  average-sized  pearls  found  are  remunerative  ; 
but  it  is  precarious  if  carried  on  on  a  small  scale,  and  the 
banks  in  Useless  Harbour  are  showing  signs  of  exhaustion, 
while  at  present  no  other  satisfactory  deposits  have  been 
found.  The  export  of  pearls,  however,  has  gradually  in- 
creased, and  some  have  realized  i^200  to  ^300  each. 

The  pearl  shell  fishery  of  Western  Australia  is  be- 
coming a  most  important  trade  on  the  Australian  north- 


Mother-of- Pearl  and  its  Uses.  397 

west  coast,  between  the  fifteenth  and  twenty-fifth  parallels 
of  south  latitude.  Less  than  seven  years  ago  this  trade  did 
not  exist,  but  within  the  last  three  years  it  has  gone  on  in- 
creasing in  importance,  till  in  1876  240  tons  of  shells  were 
exported  to  London  and  6^  tons  to  Singapore,  chiefly 
for  transmission  thence  to  the  same  destination.  The 
price  now  being  got  per  ton  is  from  ;£^250  to  ;^28o.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  iQ\w  squatters  resident  on 
the  north-western  coast,  or  by  small  capitalists,  who  proceed 
in  the  proper  season,  in  small  craft  of  from  40  to  80  tons, 
to  the  coast  where  the  shells  are  found  ;  and  there  engage 
Malay,  Japanese,  or  Australian  natives  as  divers  at  almost 
nominal  wages.  Last  season  was  a  prosperous  one,  and 
the  trade  promises  to  be  of  very  great  importance. 

Mother-of-pearl  shells  of  a  fine  quality  now  form  a 
large  article  of  export  from  Western  Australia.  There 
have  been  some  recent  imports  also  from  Gambia,  but  I  do 
not  believe  this  shell  is  met  with  on  the  West  African  coast. 

In  China  there  is  a  good  demand  for  mother-of-pearl 
shells.  They  are  used  for  carving  and  inlaying,  and  are 
also  manufactured  into  beads,  card-counters  or  "  fish  "  (as 
they  are  often  termed,  from  the  shape  into  which  they  are 
cut),  spoons,  etc.  ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  be  used  there 
for  buttons,  as  in  Europe.  Three  kinds  of  beads  are  made 
in  China  from  mother-of-pearl,  one  perfectly  round,  the 
second  not  quite  round,  and  the  third  cut  or  figured.  The 
card-counters  are  made  in  various  shapes,  round,  oval,  and 
oblong,  with  ornamental  figures  and  engravings  on  them. 
They  are  put  up  for  sale  in  sets  of  140  pieces.  A  few 
years  ago  a  set  of  very  elaborately  carved  or  engraved 
mother-of-pearl  shells  were  sent  from  China,  intended  for 
dessert  plates  ;  but,  although  elegant  in  the  workmanship 
and  labour  bestowed  on    the   carving,   and   most  curious, 


39^       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

they  were  not  suited  for  the  purpose  intended,  and  there- 
fore unappreciated  here. 

A  similar  mode  of  ornamentation,  but  less  artistic,  and 
of  a  much  coarser  character,  is  familiar  in  the  carved 
"  pilgrim  shells,"  which  are  brought  from  Bethlehem  and 
other  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  having  religious  legends  and 
figures  engraved  on  them. 

One  process  of  working  pearl  shell  is  similar  to  that  of 
engraving  metals  in  relief  by  the  aid  of  corrosive  acids 
and  the  etching-point.  The  shell  is  first  divided  as  may 
be  necessary,  and  the  designs  or  patterns  drawn  upon  it 
with  an  opaque  varnish ;  strong  nitric  acid  is  then  brushed 
over  the  shell  repeatedly,  until  the  parts  untouched  or 
undefended  by  the  varnish  are  sufficiently  corroded  or 
eaten  away  by  the  acid.  The  varnish  being  now  washed 
off,  the  device,  which  the  acid  has  not  touched,  is  found  to 
be  nicely  executed.  If  the  design  is  to  be  after  the  manner 
of  common  etching  on  copper,  the  process  upon  the.  shell 
is  precisely  the  same  as  the  process  upon  the  metal. 

Several  other  shells,  having  sufficiently  brilliant  tints  in 
their  nacreous  or  iridescent  hues,  are  used  for  some  of  the 
industrial  and  ornamental  purposes  to  which  mother-of- 
pearl  is  applied,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  brief 
notice  of  these.  The  ear-shells  {Haliotis  family)  are  much 
used  for  inlaying  work  by  the  Birmingham  manufacturers, 
to  give  the  varied  shades  to  papier-mache  ornaments  and 
fancy  articles.  They  are  sometimes  called  in  trade  "aurora 
shells."  There  are  about  seventy  species  of  these  splendid 
shells,  of  which  we  have  one  common  British  species  of 
small  size  {H.  tubcrcidata),  with  a  silvery  hue.  In  Jersey, 
where  it  abounds,  it  is  called  the  "  ormer."  These  shells 
have  a  row  of  holes  following  the  course  of  the  spine,  and 
have  been  named  ear-shells  from  their  resemblance  in  form 


Mot her-qf- Pearl  and  its   Uses.  399 

to  the  cartilage  of  the  human  ear.  The  species  of  the 
warmer  latitudes  furnish  the  most  brilliant  shades  of  colour. 
Haliotls  iris,  of  New  Zealand,  is  green,  highly  iridescent. 
H.  Mida,  a  Cape  of  Good  Hope  species,  when  deprived  of 
its  yellowish-brown  epidermis,  is  found  more  or  less  tinged 
with  orange  and  other  colours.  Some  handsome  species 
brought  from  Japan  and  other  localities  are  H.  riifcscens, 
H.  splcndens,  and  H.  CracJierodii.  The  green  ear-shell  is 
much  used  for  fancy  buttons,  studs,  sleeve-links,  buckles, 
and  earrings. 

The  people  of  Guernsey  and  Jersey  ornament  their 
houses  with  the  shells  of  the  ormer,  disposing  them  fre- 
quently in  quincunx  order,  and  placing  them  so  that  their 
bright  interior  may  catch  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Some  of 
the  large  and  splendid  intertropical  species,  which,  after 
removing  the  outer  layer,  take  a  polish  almost  equalling 
ihe  natural  brilliancy  of  the  interior,  might  be  converted 
into  dishes  for  holding  fruit ;  if  mounted  with  good  taste, 
their  indescribable  iridescence  and  prismatic  colours  would 
materially  add  to  the  richness  of  an  elegant  table.  The 
ear-shells  consist  of  numerous  plates  resembling  tortoise- 
shell,  alternating  with  thin  layers  of  nacre,  exhibiting, 
when  magnified,  a  series  of  irregular  folds. 

Under  the  name  of  Abaloncs  the  animal    is    dried  for  1 
export  by  the  Chinese  in  California,  and  by  the  Japanese.  , 
The    pearly  shell  is    used  in    inlaying,  for  jewellery,  and, 
when  polished,  as  mantel  ornaments.     Coarsely  pulverized, 
it  is  used  for  decorating  letters  in  ornamental  sign-painting. 

Another  shell  much  used  for  its  opal  tints,  its  glistening 
colours  of  light  and  dark  green,  soft  yellow,  and  bright  and 
beautiful  pink  blended  together,  is  the  Tjcrbo  olcariiis  or 
marvioratus,  which  passes  in  commerce  under  the  name  of 
the  "green  snail."     These  shells   used  to  form   the   royal 


400       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

drinking-cups  of  the  Scandinavian  monarchs,  and  they  may 
often  be  met  with,  elegantly  mounted  in  silver  and  set  with 
jewels,  in  museums.  Small  shells  of  another  species,  the 
Turk's  cap  {Turbo  sannaticus),  are  sometimes  set  as  pipe- 
bowls,  and  sections  are  much  used  for  making  little  fancy 
boxes,  purses,  caskets,  scent-bottles,  postage-stamp  cases, 
tablet-covers,  small  baskets  with  metallic  handles,  buttons, 
earrings,  ring-trays,  brooches,  etc. 

The  beautiful  effects  presented  by  the  nacreous  portion 
of  shells  is  produced,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  disposition 
of  single  membranaceous  layers  in  folds  or  plaits,  lying 
more  or  less  obliquely  to  the  general  surface.  The  tints  of 
many  shells  are  concealed  during  life  by  a  dull  external 
coat,  and  the  pearly  halls  of  the  nautilus  are  seen  by  no 
other  eyes  than  ours.  This  shell,  when  bisected,  displays 
the  pearly  chambers  for  which  the  genus  is  celebrated. 
Fine  specimens  of  the  nautilus  are  often  converted  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East  into  drinking-cups,  on  the  surface 
of  which  they  engrave  various  devices  and  ornaments. 
When  the  outer  coating  (which  is  usually  ot  a  dingy  white 
colour)  is  entirely  removed,  the  beautiful  pearly  appearance 
of  the  shell  becomes  visible.  Sometimes  the  nautilus  shell 
is  mounted  as  a  stand  for  flowers  on  the  table  or  mantel- 
piece. 

Pearl  shells  are  often  employed  for  ornamentation  in 
the  papier-mache  manufacture  work,  which,  though  it  has 
gone  much  out  of  fashion  in  this  country,  is  still  in  exten- 
sive demand  in  America  and  on  the  continent.  The 
articles  chiefly  made  are  small  fancy  tables,  chairs,  trays, 
portfolio  covers,  and  such  like.  There  are  two  ways  of 
employing  the  pieces  of  pearl  shell.  When  a  considerable 
number  of  pieces  of  thin  shell  are  required  of  the  same 
size  and   pattern,  they  are  cemented  together  with  glue, 


MotJier-of- Pearl  and  its  Uses.  401 

and  the  device  or  figure  drawn  upon  the  outer  plate.  They 
are  then  held  in  a  vice  or  clamp,  and  cut  out  as  one  plate 
with  a  fine  saw,  or  wrought  into  form  with  files;  drilling  tools 
can  be  employed  to  assist  in  the  operation.  To  separate 
the  pieces,  the  cemented  shells  are  thrown  into  warm  water, 
which  softens  the  glue  and  divides  them.  Cast  or  sheet 
iron  and  papier-mache  are  the  materials  upon  which  pearl  is 
generally  fixed  or  inlaid.     The  process  is  as  follows  : — 

If  the  article  be  of  cast  iron,  it  is  well  cleaned  from  the 
sand  which  usually  adheres  to  the  casting,  and  is  blackened 
with  a  coat  of  varnish    and   lamp-black.      When   this    is 
thoroughly  dried,  another  coat  of  japan  or  black  varnish 
is  spread  evenly  upon  it.     Before  the  varnish  becomes  too 
dry,  pieces  of  pearl  cut  in  the  form  of  leaves,  roses,  or  such 
flowers    as    the    fancy    of  the    artist    may    dictate    or   the 
character  of  the  article  may  require,  are  laid  upon  it,  and 
pressed  down  with  the   finger,  and  they  immediately  ad- 
here to  the  varnished  surface.     The  work  is  then  placed 
in  a  heated  oven,  and  kept  there  for  several  hours,  or  until 
the  varnish  is  perfectly  dried.     It  is  then  taken  from  the 
oven,  and  another  coat  of  varnish  applied  indiscriminately 
on  the  surface  of  the  pearl  and  the  previous  coating,  and 
again  placed  in  the  oven  till  dry.     This  process  is  repeated 
several  times.      The  varnish  is  then  scraped  off  the  pearl 
with  a  knife,  and  the  surface  of  the  pearl  and  the  varnish 
around  it  is  found   to    be  quite  even.     The  pearl  is  then 
polished  with  a  piece  of  pumice-stone  and  water,  and  the 
surface  of  the  varnish   is    rubbed   smooth   with  powdered 
pumice-stone,    moistened    with  water.     It   is    in    this   un- 
finished state  that  the  pearl  has  the  appearance  of  being 
inlaid,    and    from    which    it  derives    its    name.       Its    final 
beauty   and   finish    depend    altogether  on  the  skill  of  the 
artist  Avho  now  receives  it. 

18 


402      The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PEARLS   AND   THE   PP:aRL   FISHERIES. 

Great  demand  for  pearls — Mode  of  formation — Large  and  valuable  pearls — 
Shells  on  which  they  are  formed — Statistics  of  the  Ceylon  pearl  fisheries — 
Mode  of  prosecuting  the  fishery — Classification  of  pearls — Value  of  pearls 
imported  into  England — Persian  Gulf  fishery — Panama  fishery — Pacific 
fisheries — Pearls  from  river  mussels — Celebrated  pearls. 

Having  treated  of  mother-of-pearl  and  its  applications,  we 
are  necessarily  led  next  to  the  consideration  of  the  much- 
prized  pearls  themselves,  which  are  held  in  such  high  esti- 
mation for  personal  decoration  by  ladies,  and  even  by  the 
stronger-minded  sex  in  the  East,  where  Indian  princes  are 
radiant  in  pearls,  and  the  trappings  of  their  elephants  are 
profusely  covered  with  these  gems  of  the  ocean.  The 
native  princes,  in  their  interview  a  few  years  ago  with  the 
Viceroy  of  India  at  Barwal,  had  their  elephants  beautifully 
caparisoned  with  masses  of  pearls  on  the  head.  Holkar 
had  his  chest,  completely  covered  with  strings  of  pearls  and 
emeralds.  This  much-admired  ornament  is  appreciated 
in  all  parts  of  Eastern  Asia,  from  the  Himalayas  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  Manchuria  to  the  Straits,  being  in  requisi- 
tion for  the  decorations  of  shoes,  girdles,  earrings,  neck- 
laces, and  head-dresses,  and  for  the  embellishment  of 
popular  divinities.  The  frequent  mention  of  pearls  in 
Chinese   history  shows   the  value   set  upon  them  by  the 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  403 

Imperial  court,  and  by  all  who  were  ambitious  of  adorning 
their  persons.  Pearls  of  two  and  three  inches  in  circum- 
ference are  spoken  of  Mingti,  a  Chinese  monarch  of  the 
early  part  of  the  tenth  century,  celebrated  for  his  extrava- 
gance, had  such  a  profusion  of  pearls  ornamenting  his 
canopy,  the  trappings  of  his  horses  and  chariots,  and 
decorating  his  person  and  the  persons  of  his  nobles,  that 
the  road  was  often  strewn  with  the  gems  which  the  gorgeous 
cortege  dropped  in  its  train.  A  custom  was  prevalent, 
termed  "scattering  in  the  palace,"  in  which  embassies  from 
tributary  States  strewed  pearls  about  in  abundance;  indeed, 
on  one  occasion,  a  garment  composed  of  strings  of  pearls 
was  thus  presented. 

It  is  debatable  ground  whether  pearls  come  strictly 
under  the  term  "  gems,"  but  they  are,  at  least,  very  precious 
in  price  and  general  estimation.  The  value  of  the  pearls 
owned  in  Europe,  America,  and  India  must  be  consider- 
able, if  we  consider  what  have  been  the  accumulation  of 
ages,  how  eagerly  the  search  for  them  is  still  prosecuted, 
and  how  anxious  those  having  wealth  at  command  are  to 
possess  the  choicest  of  their  kind.  We  have  but  very  im- 
perfect data  on  which  to  frame  any  reliable  estimate  of  the 
Western  commerce  in  pearls.  A  large  dealer  has  assured 
me  that  from  i^ioo,000  to  ^120,000  is  about  the  annual 
value  of  those  received  here.  If  we  examine  the  official 
Board  of  Trade  returns  we  find  that  the  declared  and 
computed  value  of  the  pearls,  set  or  unset,  imported  into 
the  United  Kingdom  in  the  18  years  ending  with  1870, 
exceeded  iJ^  1,000,000  sterling. 

This,  be  it  remembered,  is  much  under  the  true  value, 
and  relates  only  to  Great  Britain,  whilst  quantities  are 
brought  in  unrecorded.  If  we  consider  also  how  many  are 
sent  to  the  East, , and   are  sold  on  the  continent  and  in 


404       The  Conunercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

America,  we  may  be  able  to  form  a  slight  conception  of 
the  great  importance  of  pearls  in  an  artistic  and  commercial 
point  of  view.  The  10  fisheries  for  pearls  carried  on,  on 
the  coast  of  Ceylon,  between  1833  and  1863,  brought  in  to 
the  Ceylon  Government  ;^300,ooo,  but  what  the  speculators 
made  by  the  pearls  they  obtained  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  state. 

The  ordinary  pearls  of  commerce  are  an  excretion  of 
superimposed  concentric  laminae,  of  a  peculiarly  fine  and 
dense  nacreous  substance,  consisting  of  membrane  and 
carbonate  of  lime.  The  best  are  obtained  from  bivalves, 
but  some  are  formed  by  univalves,  which  are  more  curious 
than  valuable. 

In  the  class  of  moUusca  which  inhabit  the  seas  and 
fresh  waters,  most  of  those  with  shells  secrete  a  horny  and 
calcareous  substance,  that  is,  combined  animal  and  mineral, 
formed  on  the  interior  of  the  shell  during  their  growth,  and- 
they  also  form  that  admired  substance  known  as  mother-of- 
pearl.  The  superabundance  of  this  secretion  is  often  pro- 
duced in  drops,  balls,  or  tuberosities,  adhering  to  the  in- 
terior of  the  valves,  or  lodged  in  the  fleshy  part  of  the 
animal.  In  the  latter  instance  they  are  of  a  spherical 
shape,  and  increased  annually  by  a  layer  of  pearly  matter ; 
they  remain  brilliant,  translucid,  and  hard. 

At  the  Maritime  International  Exhibition  which  was 
held  at  .Naples  in  1871,  the  various  ocean  treasures  em- 
ployed in  art  were  displayed  in  great  profusion  and 
magnificence.  Even  the  Italian  journals  became  poetical 
and  enthusiastic  upon  the  manifold  attractions  of  the  hall 
of  pearls  and  coral.  Marchisini,  of  Florence,  showed  a 
wonderful  collection  of  pearls  ;  among  others,  a  brown 
pearl,  valued  at  ;^5000,  and  three  necklaces  of  large  white 
oriental  pearls,  finished  and  ornamented  with  brilliants,  etc. 


Peai'ls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  405 

To  this  exhibitor  was  awarded  the  great  gold  medal,  net 
for  finish  as  works  of  art  (for  those  of  Franconini  and 
R.  Phillips,  of  London,  which  were  far  superior,  were  passed 
over),  but  merely  as  the  most  rare  and  valuable  collection 
of  pearls  shown. 

Bellega  has  a  high  reputation  for  Italian  jewellery.  His 
collection  at  Naples  also  received  a  medal  from  the  jury, 
and  included  a  diadem  of  pearls,  turquoises,  and  brilliants, 
and  a  variety  of  other  objects. 

Phillips  Brothers,  of  Cockspur  Street,  exhibited  a  very 
large  and  curious-shaped  pearl,  tastefully  mounted  and  set 
as  a  triton. 

The  best  pearls  are  of  a  clear,  bright  whiteness,  free 
from  spot  or  stain,  with  the  surface  naturally  smooth  and 
glossy.  Those  of  a  round  form  are  preferred,  but  the 
larger  pear-shaped  ones  are  esteemed  for  earrings.  Ac- 
'cording  to  the  position  the  pearls  occupy,  they  partake  of 
the  character  of  the  shell  near  which  they  are  formed. 
Thus,  the  pearls  from  the  centre  of  the  nacreous  shells  are 
of  the  usual  pearly  structure  of  those  shells,  while  the  pearls 
formed  on  or  near  the  outer  coat  of  the  Pinna  squamosa 
are  of  the  same  brown  colour  and  prismatic  texture  as  that 
part  of  the  shell.  Those  from  the  Placiina  placenta  are  of 
a  lead  colour,  while  even  from  the  true  pearl  oysters 
{Aviada  margaritifera)  they  are  frequently  of  a  light, 
semi-transparent  straw  colour.  Those  formed  on  the  part 
of  the  common  mussel  shells  are  of  a  bluish  colour. 

The  dark-coloured  pearls  are  usually  little  esteemed  ; 
in  general  they  are  obtained  from  the  black-edged  or  smoky 
mother-of-pearl  shell.  Pearls  of  a  considerable  size  are 
sometimes  found  attached  to  the  shell,  and  being  carefully 
removed  and  filed,  are  strung  with  the  perfect  pearls,  as  the 
convex  part  of  the  pearl  which  was  in  contact   with   the 


4o6       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

shell  is  often  of  the  same  size  and  perfect  form  with  the 
part  which  projects  beyond  the  surface  of  the  shell. 

Pearls  of  this  description,  but  not  so  perfect  at  the 
point  of  contact  with  the  shell,  serve  the  jeweller  equally- 
well  for  the  purpose  of  setting  as  the  perfect  pearl.  Some 
of  those  on  the  shell,  and  others  detached,  may  be  seen  in 
the  fine  collection  of  Mr.  Beresford  Hope  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum.  Mr.  Hope  possesses  the  largest 
known  pearl,  weighing  three  ounces,  or  1800  grains  ;  its 
length  is  two  inches,  and  its  circumference  four  and  a  half 
inches.  The  drawers  and  cabinet  of  pearls  of  Messrs.  Hunt 
and  Roskell,  of  London,  are  an  attractive  sight  to  inspect. 

The  Duke  of  Abercorn  has  a  wonderfully  fine  pearl 
drop.  The  beautiful /^rz/rrj  of  pearls  of  the  Countess  of 
Dudley  won  the  admiration  of  the  thousands  who  visited 
the  London  Exhibition  of  1872.  One  necklace  alone  of 
singularly  fine  pearls  was  valued  at  £'})0,000.  Many  other 
remarkable  sets  of  pearl  ornaments  belonging  to  the  nobility 
and  gentry  were  also  shown  there. 

Although  fine  pearls  are  for  the  most  part  strung  pure 
and  simple,  requiring  nothing  to  add  to  their  intrinsic  value 
and  beauty,  yet  occasionally  the  taste  and  art  of  the 
jeweller  are  called  in  to  combine  them  into  graceful  forms 
of  ornament,  with  the  addition  of  diamonds,  for  earrings, 
brooches,  coronets,  and  other  head-ornaments. 

Very  often,  in  purchasing  job  lots  and  miscellaneous 
collections  of  rough  pearls,  some  extraordinary  finds  are 
made.  Thus,  among  some  apparently  of  small  value  from 
Australia,  bought  by  Messrs.  Hunt  and  Roskell,  one  was 
discovered  which  sold  for  j^^Soo  ;  and  several  fine  large 
pearls  had  been  destroyed  in  colour  and  value  from  the 
aborigines  having  roasted  the  oysters  which  contained  them. 
Frequently  a  very  fine  pearl  will  be  found  attached  to  the 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  407 

mother-of-pearl  shells,  which  the  pearl  workers  purchase 
at  the  London  sales  in  bulk.  When  carefully  detached, 
high  prices  have  thus  been  frequently  obtained.  The  natives, 
when  the  oysters  are  collected,  generally  drill  a  hole  in  the 
mother-of-pearl  shell,  or  break  it  up  to  get  out  any  real 
pearls  there  may  be  in  it ;  but  occasionally  they  miss  one, 
and  Mr.  Wright,  a  pearl-button  manufacturer,  states  that 
about  15  years  ago  a  workman  in  Birmingham  found, 
in  one  of  the  shells  he  was  employed  upon,  a  very  large 
and  perfectly  formed  pearl,  which  he  disposed  of  for  £i\o, 
and  which  was  afterwards  resold  for  i^200.  Small  pearls 
are  frequently  found  in  this  way,  some  perfect,  and  others 
only  of  irregular  formation.  In  the  instance  referred  to, 
the  pearl  was  perfect  in  form,  and  of  the  shape  and  size  of 
a  small  damson. 

The  jeweller  will  often  split  a  pearl,  which  serves  for 
setting  solid.  The  Scotch  river  pearls  are  very  frequently 
set  with  a  solid  mass  of  gold. 

The  Russian  Cabinet,  which  purchases  largely  for  the 
Czar,  possesses  a  magnificent  and  valuable  collection  of 
pearls.  The  late  emperor  shared  with  his  wife  a  fancy  for 
choice  and  fine  pearls,  and  had  them  sought  for  all  over 
the  world.  They  had  to  fulfil  two  conditions  rarely  to  be 
met  with.  They  must  be  perfect  spheres,  and  they  must 
be  virgin  pearls,  for  he  would  buy  none  that  had  been 
worn  by  others.  After  25  years'  search,  he  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  presenting  his  consort  with  a  necklace  such  as 
the  world  had  never  seen  before.  The  Crown  Prince  of 
Prussia  presented  his  bride  at  her  marriage  with  a  splendid 
necklace,  of  ■^G  fine  pearls,  which  excited  the  envy  of 
many  a  lady  who  saw  it.  This  admiration  for  fine  pearls 
has  been  a  common  weakness  in  all  ages  and  in  all 
countries. 


4o8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

It  was  long  supposed  that  pearls  were  only  formed  in 
bivalve  shells,  and  it  was  therefore  difficult  to  understand 
what  shell  it  was  that  yielded  the  pink  pearl,  for  no  known 
bivalve  of  any  size  has  such  a  coloured  inner  surface.  It 
is  now  ascertained  that  the  pink  pearl  is  produced,  among 
others,  by  one  of  the  porcelaneous  or  chank  shells  {Ttir- 
binella  scolyinus).  All  doubt  on  this  head  is  set  at  rest 
by  a  specimen  of  this  shell  in  the  British  Museum,  where 
a  fine  large  pink  pearl  has  been  caught  and  embedded  in 
the  shell,  near  its  aperture,  just  as  it  was  about  to  escape. 
The  pearl  is  exactly  like  the  internal  surface  of  that  shell. 
These  pink  pearls  are  also  produced  by  the  common 
fountain-shell  of  the  West  Indies  {Stronibus  gigns),  and 
are  known  in  commerce  as  conch  pearls.  Some  very  fine 
pink  pearls  were  shown  from  the  Bahamas  at  the  London 
International  Exhibition  of  1862.  These  pearls,  however, 
fade,  as  do  the  pink  cameo  brooches.  The  giant  clam 
(Tridacna  gigas),  the  common  oyster  {Ostrea  ediilis),  the 
horse-mussel  {Modiola  vulgaris),  and  many  other  bivalves, 
yield  pearls,  but  they  are  generally  opaque  and  valueless. 

Small  seed-pearls  are  obtained  in  the  Eastern  seas  from 
the  semi-transparent  molluscous  shell,  P lacuna  placenta  or 
orbicularis,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  medicinal  purposes  in 
China.  Some  of  the  finer  ones  are  selected  as  jewellers' 
pearls,  but  these  are  of  a  different  character  and  lustre  to 
the  pearls  produced  by  the  Avictda  inargaritifcra  and  the 
Meleagrina  inargaritifcra,  which  is  abundant  in  the  Sulu 
Archipelago. 

Although  pearls  are  obtained  in  the  seas  and  rivers  of 
many  parts  of  the  world,  yet  the  fisheries  have  been  prose- 
cuted on  a  large  scale,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  in 
only  three  or  four  localities — in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  on 
the    pearl    banks   of    Ceylon,   Aripoo,   and   Tuticorin    in 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  409 

Southern  India ;  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  off  the  island  of 
Bahrein  ;  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  and  the  Gulf  of  California, 
and  on  the  shores  of  Australia  about  the  Pacific  Islands. 

The  revenue  derived  from  the  pearl  fishery  in  Ceylon  is 
uncertain  and  precarious,  but  worth  fostering      The  Dutch 
had  no  fishery  for  27  years,  from   1768  to   1796,  and  they 
were  equally  unsuccessful  from  1732  till  1746.     Under  the 
British  Government,  the  right  of  pearl  fishing  was  let  to 
Mr.  John  Jervis,  a  merchant  of  the  East  India  Company ; 
but  Mr.  Jervis  got  nervous,  and  allowed  some  natives  to  go 
in  for  the  chances  at  £6o,QOO,  who  are  said  to  have  cleared 
three  times  the   amount  by  this   adventure.     The  fishery 
right,  in  1797,  was  purchased  by  Candappa  Chetty,  a  native 
of  Jaffna,  for  £\\o,oqo  ;  but  the  fishery  was  prolonged,  and 
on  counting  up,  the  net  profits  were  found  to  be  ;{^  144,000. 
The  same  renter  purchased  the  fishery  of  1798  for  ^140,000. 
The    fishery   was    again    prolonged,    and    yielded    a    clear 
revenue  (including  other  gains)  of  ^T  192,000.     The  banks 
having  been  exhausted,  the  proceeds  of  the  fishery  in  17C9 
fell  to  ^30,000.     From  1799  till  1802  inclusive,  the  average 
yearly   produce    ranged    from    ;^  12,000    to    ;^5 5,000    per 
annum;  in  1806,  ^^35,000;  but  in  1814  the  proceeds  were 
^^"105,187.     There  was  no  fishery  from   1820  to  1827.     In 
the  next  five  years,  from   1828  to    1833,  it  averaged  about 
^^30,000.    In  1834  there  was  no  fishery.    In  1835  it  brought 
in  upwards  of  ^^"40,000.     In  the  next  two  years  it  declined 
to  i5"25,8oo  and  i^io,6oo  respectively,  and  then  the  fishery 
was    not   resumed    until    1855,    when    about  i^i  1,000  was 
realized. 

The  pearl  fishery  of  i860  was,  as  regards  revenue  to  the 
Government,  nearly  the  most  successful  that  has  taken  place 
since  the  fisheries  were  resumed.  It  realized  ^^"48,2 16;  and 
but  for  the  change  of  weather  which  set  in  at  the  end  of 


4IO       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

March  and  the  outbreak  of  cholera  which  ensued,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  proceeds  would  have 
reached  ^60,000.  The  great  increase  in  the  selling  price  of 
the  oysters  was  owing  to  the  profit  (which  could  not  have 
been  less  than  300  per  cent.)  made  by  the  speculators  in 
1858.  The  fame  of  this  brought  all  India  into  the  field  as 
competitors.  Money  was  as  plentiful  as  buyers,  and  the 
same  oysters  which  averaged  £\  \<^s.  per  looo  in  1858,  in 
1859  produced  an  average  of  £\  \os.,  the  highest  rate  paid 
being  no  less  than  £Z  8j".  The  two  later  fisheries  realized 
still  higher  prices.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that,  even 
at  these  prices,  large  profits  were  made. 

The  fishery  of  i860  produced  ^^"36,682  to  the  Govern- 
ment, the  average  price  paid  per  lOOO  for  the  oysters 
being  as  much  as  i5"i3  ^y.,  the  highest  price  given  being 
iJ'iS  per  1000.  In  the  fishery  of  1863  the  sum  realized  was 
a  little  over  i5"5 1,000,  the  average  price  paid  for  oysters 
by  speculators  being  £6  14^".  per  1000. 

Ceylon  has,  during  the  last  80  years,  derived  from  her 
pearl  fisheries  more  than  a  million  of  money,  namely  : — 


1st  series,  179610  1809 

^"517,481 

2nd     ,,      1814  to  1820 

89,909 

3rd     ,,      1S28  to  1837 

227,132 

4th      ,,      1855  to  i860 

117,454 

Fishery  of  1863         

51,018 

1874         

10,120 

1877         

18,952 

1,032,066 


In  the  last-named  year  1527  boats  were  employed  fish- 
ing on  30  days,  the  number  of  oysters  obtained  being 
6,849,720. 

Experience  has  shown  that  but  few  pearls,  and  those 
of  but  slight  value,  can  be  looked  for  in  oysters  under  five 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries. 


411 


years  old  ;  from  the  fifth  to  the  sixth  year,  however,  the 
pearl  oyster  doubles  in  value,  and  again  doubles  should 
it  survive  to  the  seventh  year.  If  removed  too  soon  the 
pearls  are  imperfectly  formed,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
allowed  to  remain  too  long,  the  fish  dies  and  is  lost. 

The  Ceylon  pearl  fishery  usually  lasts  for  a  month  or 


Fig.  29. 


I.    Meleagrina    margaritifera,    the    mother-of-pearl   shell.      2.     Aiiodonta 
herculea,  the  Chinese  pearl  mussel. 

six  weeks,  commencing  about  the  second  week  in  March, 
and  is  carried  on  to  the  middle  or  end  of  April,  when  the 
sea  is  usually  calm  and  the  currents  least  perceptible.  The 
following  is  from  an  account  of  the  fishery  which  I  pub- 
lished in  my  "  Technologist,"  vol.  ii.  p.  546  :— "  The  boats 
employed  are  divided   into  two  squadrons,  each  consisting 


^^.  1 2       The  C ommei^cial  Prodiicis  of  the  Sea. 

generally  of  60  or  70  boats.  The  squadrons  fish  alternately. 
Each  boat  has  its  company,  five  diving-stones,  and  two 
divers  to  each  stone.  All  the  men  are  numbered  as  well 
as  the  boat,  and  in  the  Government  shed  or  platform  there 
are  divisions  with  corresponding  numbers,  so  that  each 
boat  knows  the  precise  spot  where  its  oysters  are  to  be 
deposited. 

"The  squadron  starts  usually  between  11  and  12  at 
night,  so  as  to  reach  the  fishing  ground  by  sunrise.  The 
banks  are  about  12  miles  from  the  shore.  As  soon  as  the 
boats  have  arrived  the  signal  is  given,  and  the  diving-stones 
go  over  the  sides  of  the  boats  with  a  low  rumbling  noise. 
One  diver  goes  down  with  each.  The  other  holds  the 
signal  rope,  watches  the  motions  of  his  comrade,  draws  up 
first  the  stone,  then  the  net  in  which  the  oysters  are  lodged 
as  torn  from  the  bank,  and  then  the  diver  himself.  Each 
pair  of  divers  keep  their  oysters  separate  from  the  rest  in 
large  nets  or  baskets,  so  that  luck  and  labour  determine  the 
remuneration  of  the  pair. 

"  When  one  man  is  tired  the  other  takes  his  place  ;  but 
they  do  not  dive  alternately,  as  too  much  time  would 
be  lost  by  changing.  The  man  who  has  been  down,  after 
remaining  a  minute  or  so  upon  the  surface,  during  which 
he  either  floats  without  apparent  exertion  or  holds  on  by 
a  rope,  descends  again,  and  repeats  the  process,  until  he 
requires  rest,  when  he  takes  his  turn  on  board.  This  con- 
tinues without  interruption  for  six  hours.  Indeed,  the 
stimulus  of  self-interest  brought  to  bear  upon  all  is  so 
great,  that  as  the  time  approaches  for  striking  work,  the 
efforts  of  the  men  increase,  and  there  is  never  so  much 
activity  as  when  the  heat  is  most  intense,  the  sky  without 
a  cloud,  the  sun  glaring  frightfully,  and  the  sea  like  molten 
lead.     At  last  the  second  gun  is  fired  ;  every  stone  goes 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries,  413 

down  simultaneously  for  one  more  haul,  and  then  every 
hand  is  employed  in  making  sail,  and  each  boat  has  her 
head  to  the  shore.  When  they  reach  the  beach,  in  an 
instant  the  divers  are  in  the  water,  and  each  pair  carries 
the  results  of  a  day's  work  to  the  shed.  Then  they  divide 
the  oysters  into  four  heaps.  In  two  hours  the  whole  of  the 
boats  are  unloaded,  unless  delayed  by  contrary  winds.  The 
divers'  share  is  removed,  and  the  three-fourths  belonging 
to  Government  left  in  the  shed,  divided  into  heaps  of  looo 
each,  the  doors  are  locked,  guards  stationed,  and  everything 
is  in  readiness  for  the  public  sale. 

"  This  system  appears  peculiarly  well  suited  to  the 
country,  and  to  the  objects  in  view,  by  bringing  to  bear 
upon  the  daily  results  of  the  fishery  the  largest  amount  of 
private  interests  and  the  smallest  amount  of  Government 
control.  No  man  could  be  forced  into  doing  what  the 
divers  do  voluntarily.  No  fixed  payment  would  induce 
them  to  dive  so  often  in  the  day,  or  to  unload  their  boats 
with  equal  despatch." 

The  market  is  a  curious  sight,  always  full  of  people 
bargaining,  purchasing  and  selling  a  variety  of  things. 
Spectacled  Moormen  from  the  coasts  of  India,  with  tiny 
scales  and  weights  before  them,  and  brass  pans  for  sizing 
the  pearls,  looking  at  one  strangely  from  their  little  huts  as 
he  passes  by,  with  that  expression  of  cunning  and  clever- 
ness at  driving  a  bargain  so  characteristic  amongst  their 
class.  Money-changers  and  petty  shopkeepers,  with  their 
money  and  wares  spread  out  on  white  cloth,  line  the 
streets. 

The  Tuticorin  fishery,  on  the  Madras  side  of  the  Strait, 
yielded,  in  1861,  about  ^10,000  revenue.  In  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  the  fishery  here  brought  in  to  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  a  yearly  tribute  of  i^20,ooo.     On  the 


414       l^f^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Tinnevelly  side  the  Dutch  fisheries  were  also  incessant, 
almost  annual.  After  the  English  occupation  of  Tuticorin 
there  was  a  fishery  in  1822,  which  yielded  a  profit  of 
;^ 1 3,000  to  the  Indian  revenue.  Another  in  1830  netted 
^10,000. 

The  pearl  oyster  appears  inclined  to  bid  farewell  to  the 
shores  of  Tinnevelly  for  ever,  and  various  reasons  are  being 
alleged  as  to  the  cause  of  its  gradual  but  sure  disappear- 
ance. We  do  not  pretend  to  be  able  to  solve  the  problem, 
but  it  is  well  known  that  fish  cannot  live  in  water  beyond  a 
certain  density,  or  be  exposed  to  a  pressure  of  more  than 
three  atmospheres,  and  it  is  also  known  that  marine  animals 
derive  from  the  water  the  solid  matter  which  forms  their 
shells.  Now,  the  disgusting  filth  which  the  returning  tide 
carries  twice  in  the  24  hours  from  the  beach  at  Tuticorin, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  contribution  from  the  shipping,  is 
sufficient  to  contaminate  the  water  to  such  an  extent  that 
mollusca  less  delicate  than  the  pearl  oyster  might,  without 
exaggeration,  be  supposed  to  flee  the  polluted  waters. 

Between  1830  and  1856  there  were  13  examinations  of 
the  banks,  and  on  each  occasion  it  was  found  that  there 
was  not  a  sufficient  number  of  grown  oysters  to  yield  a 
profitable  fishery, and  none  was  attempted  again  until  i860. 
In  that  year  the  sale  of  the  Government  share  of  oysters 
by  public  auction  began  at  15  rupees,  and  gradually  rose  to 
40  rupees  (;^4)  per  1000.  As  many  as  15,874,500  shells 
were  sold,  realizing  upwards  of  ^20,000  as  the  net  result  to 
Government,  exclusive  of  all  expenses  and  of  the  shares 
allowed  to  the  divers.  In  1861  the  results  of  the  fishery 
were  equally  satisfactory.  The  price  began  at  £"/  to  £^ 
per  1000  shells,  and  afterwards  sank  to  £4.,  £t„  and  34$-. 
In  1862  the  banks  were  found  to  be  in  a  most  unpromising 
state,  and  no  fishery  was  attempted  till  1874. 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  415 

The  net  revenue  derived  from  the  Ceylon  fishery  for 
the  nine  years  prior  to  1834  was  ^^145,000 ;  In  1835  it  pro- 
duced ;^40,ooo.  In  1837  there  was  a  small  fishery  which 
realized  only  ^^10,631.  There  was  no  fishery  again  until 
1855,  when  about  the  same  amount  was  obtained.  In  i860 
the  fishery  was  resumed,  and  brought  in  over  ^36,000. 

In  1877,  after  two  years'  rest,  the  pearl  oyster  beds 
were  again  thrown  open  to  the  divers.  The  result  of  the 
limited  period  of  fishing  was  looked  forward  to  with  con- 
siderable interest,  as  upon  its  success  depend  the  hopes  of 
the  restoration  of  this  decaying  industry,  and  the  nature  of 
the  treatment  to  which  the  beds  will  in  future  be  subjected. 
Pearl  oysters — or  rather  mussels,  for  the  bivalve  that  yields 
the  precious  gems  is  not  a  real  oyster,  but  a  variety  of  the 
mussel — produce  the  largest  pearls  when  they  have  attained 
a  growth  of  about  four  years,  and  it  is  consequently  the  aim 
of  the  divers  to  secure  only  those  which  have  reached  that 
age.  It  has  consequently  been  the  policy  of  the  authorities 
in  Ceylon  to  permit  the  fishing  of  different  beds  only  once 
every  four  years,  leaving  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
molluscs  to  replenish  the  stock.  But  the  objections  to  that 
system  are  that,  owing  to  the  numerous  enemies  by  which 
the  shell-fish  are  surrounded,  and  other  circumstances  con- 
nected with  their  development,  banks  of  oysters  have  been 
known  almost  totally  to  disappear  within  a  single  year, 
when  left  unfished  for  more  than  three  or  four  years  ;  so 
that,  though  the  temptation  to  leave  the  beds  untouched 
for  that  period,  in  the  hope  of  securing  a  supply  of  large 
pearls,  is  very  great,  the  danger  that  the  whole  produce 
may  be  lost  more  than  counterbalances  it.  The  object, 
therefore,  which  the  Government  has  in  view  in  the  present 
operations  is  to  see  what  is  the  proper  length  of  time  which 
ought  to  elapse  between  different  fishings  in  the  same  beds. 


41 6       The  Commercial  Pi'odiLcts  of  the  Sea. 

Experimental  divings  made  during  the  last  few  years 
showed  there  was  on  the  banks  which  are  now  being  fished 
a  harvest  of  some  10,000,000  oysters.    The  average  number 
of  pearls  to  be  expected  from  this  quantity  of  oysters  is 
about  two  per  cent.     The  average  value  per  1000  oysters 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  size  of  the  gems.     The  theory 
is  that  pearl  oysters  in  the  last  year  of  their  existence 
double   their  value   all   round.      If   1000  oysters   produce 
pearls — large  and  small  together — worth  ^20,  the  catch  is 
considered  a  very  good  one.     A  hundred  tiny  pearls  the 
size  of  a  pin's  head  are  not  worth  one  of  the  size  of  a  small 
dried  pea,  so  that   the  fishing  is   practically  a   lottery,   in 
which    the    prizes    are  very  few  and    the  blanks  may  be 
numbered  by  millions.     Indeed,  the  manner  in  which  the 
boats  are  selected,  and   the  order  in  which   they  fish,  are 
arranged  by  lots,  the  boats   being  placed  in   divisions  of 
about  50  each,  and  sent  out  one  division  at  a  time,  till  all 
have  had  an  equal  number  of  chances.     About  250  boats 
are  generally  employed  in  the  actual  fishing  operations, 
and  no  fewer  than  10,000  people  are  directly  or  indirectly 
engaged   in   the   industry.      In    the  great  fishery  in    1874 
the   number   of    oysters   taken    in    one   bank    alone   was 
1,250,000,  which  sold  for  about  101,200  rupees,  or  ;f  10,120. 
These  figures  will  give   some  idea  of  the   importance  of 
the  fishery,  and  the  desirability  of  restoring,  if  possible,  its 
productive  powers,  since  the  Government,  as  well  as   the 
divers  themselves,  derive  a  considerable  revenue  from  the 
sale  of  the  pearls. 

After  the  pearls  are  collected  they  are  classed,  weighed, 
and  valued.  The  method  of  classing  them  is  by  passing 
them  through  a  succession  of  brass  cullenders,  called 
baskets,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  large  saucers.  There 
are  lO,  and  sometimes  12,  of  these  cullenders  :  the  first  has 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  417 

20  holes  in  it,  and  the  pearls  that  do  not  pass  through 
these  holes,  after  being  well  shaken,  are  called  of  the 
twentieth  basket.  The  succeeding  baskets  have  30,  50,  80, 
100,  200,  400,  600,  800,  1000  holes  ;  each  basket  giving  the 
name,  corresponding  with  its  number  of  holes,  to  the  pearls 
that  do  not  pass  through ;  so  that  there  are  pearls  of 
twentieth,  thirtieth,  fiftieth,  and  so  on,  to  the  thousandth 
basket.  The  pearls  which  do  not  pass  through  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  baskets,  when  they  are  used,  are  called  masie. 
The  pearls  having  been  sorted  into  lo  or  12  sizes  by  means 
of  the  baskets,  are  carefully  examined  in  regard  to  their 
beauty  of  shape  and  colour,  and  each  size,  except  the  masie, 
is  susceptible  of  seven  distinct  descriptions.  After  being 
classed,  they  are  weighed  and  valued  according  to  their 
respective  qualities.  The  price  of  pearls  is  expressed  at  a 
certain  rate  per  cJioiv,  which  term  has  reference  to  the 
quality  ascertained  from  the  size,  the  form,  the  colour,  and 
the  weight. 

The  number  of  pearls  which  are  valuable  as  gems,  and 
permanently  retained  as  such,  is  limited  ;  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  small  seed  pearls,  and  of  the  defective  ones, 
are  used  as  ingredients  of  a  highly  prized  native  electuary  ; 
and  occasionally  the  extravagance  is  committed  of  reducing 
them  to  chunaiii,  or  lime,  to  be  used  with  betel-leaf  and 
areca-nut  as  a  masticatory.  The  pearl-powder  of  the 
apothecary  was  even  a  sovereign  remedy  for  many  diseases 
in  this  country  a  century  ago  ;  but  whether  it  were  made  of 
pearls  is  questionable. 

Declared  Value  of  the  Pearls  imported  into  the  United 

KiNGDO.M. 

1853  ^60,735 

1854  ...  ...  ...  ...      41,001 

1855  30,476 


41 8       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


1856 

1S57 
1858 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 


;^56,l62 

62,805 

78,559 
56,236 

45,789 
51,816 
38,096 
36,079 
45,403 
16,675 


No  later  official  returns  have  been  published. 

The  average  annual  imports  of  pearls  into  France  are 
thus  given  in  the  French  official  tables  : — 

Grammes.  VaUie  in  francs. 

82,100  ...     1,265,951 

155,300  ...     2,620,863 

118,078  ...     2,007,333 


Ten  years  ending  1856 
„  „       1S66 

„  „       1876 


The  next  large  Eastern  fishery  is  that  in  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Colonel  Pelly,  in  an  official  report  to  the  Bombay 
Government  in  1863,  stated  that  the  pearl  oyster  beds  ex- 
tend at  intervals  almost  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
Arabian  coast  of  the  Gulf.  No  person  other  than  the  coast 
Arabs  is  considered  to  have  any  right  of  diving ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  any  intrusion  on  the  part  of  foreigners  would 
create  a  general  ferment  along  the  coast  line.  The  richest 
banks  are  those  of  the  islands  of  Bahrein.  They  are  found 
at  all  depths,  from  a  little  below  high-water  mark  down  to 
17  and  18  fathoms.  It  is  probable  that  there  are  beds  at  a 
much  greater  depth.  It  is  held  as  a  rule  here  that  the  lustre 
of  the  pearl  depends  on  the  depth  of  the  water — the  greater 
the  depth,  the  finer  the  lustre.  There  does  not  .seem  to  be 
any  known  law  governing  the  more  or  less  sphericity  of 
the  pearl. 

The  diving  period  is  from  the  warm  spring  in  April  to 
the  end  of  the  hot  summer  months  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember.    There  are  generally  from  4000  to  5000  fishing 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  419 

boats  along  the  entire  coast,  each  boat  containing  from 
10,  20,  to  32  men.  Of  the  above  number  of  boats  about 
1500  will  belong  to  Bahrein. 

A  large  number  of  the  boats  employed  in  the  Persian 
Gulf  fishery  are  in  the  hands  of  pearl  merchants,  Avhether 
Hindoo  or  other,  who  reside  in  the  towns  of  the  littoral. 
These  agents  make  advances  of  moneys  to  the  divers  during 
the  non-diving  season.  As  a  rule,  the  diving  may  be  in 
water  of  four  to  seven  fathoms  in  depth.  The  crew  is  told 
off  into  divers  and  rope-holders,  the  former  diving,  while 
the  latter  keep  the  boat  and  stand  by  to  haul  the  diver  up. 

The  value  of  the  Persian  Gulf  fishery  has  been  usually 
estimated  at  ;:^400,ooo  a-year.  Lieutenant  Whitelocke, 
Lieutenant  Wellsted,  and  other  well-informed  authorities, 
give  this  amount,  and  Colonel  Pelly  confirms  it  recently  ; 
for  he  says  the  annual  out-turn  of  this  pearl  fishery  is 
assumed  to  be  as  follows: — The  Bahrein  pearl  div^ers, 
;^200,000;  divers  from  the  Arab  littoral  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
others  than  Bahrein,  ;£"200,ooo  ;  total,  ;^400,ooo.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  best  pearls  is  sent  to  the  Bombay  market, 
where  fancy  prices  are  often  given  for  good  pearls.  A  large 
number  of  pearls  is  sent  towards  Bagdad.  As  a  rule, 
the  Bombay  market  seeks  the  pearl  of  yellowish  hue  and 
perfect  sphericity  ;  while  the  Bagdad  market  prefers  the 
white  pearl.  The  small  seed-pearls  go  principally  to  Bag- 
dad also.  The  value  of  the  pearls  imported  into  Bagdad 
from  Bahrein  was,  in  1865,  about^30,ooo;  in  i866,;^25,ooo  ; 
in  1 867,  ;^  1 8,000  ;  but  in  the  two  following  years  the  annual 
imports  did  not  average  ^8,000. 

The  next  fishery  of  any  importance  is  in  Central 
America,  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sides  ;  but  even  here, 
from  over-fishing,  the  pearls  have  become  exhausted,  the 
oysters  not  being  allowed  to  reach  maturity. 


420       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  Bay  of  Muleg^e,  in  the  Gulf  of 
California,  near  Los  Coyetes,  pearls  have  been  found  of  rare 
value  and  astonishing  brilliancy.  It  was  in  this  bay  that 
Jeremiah  Evans,  an  Englishman,  towards  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  obtained  those  magnificent  pearls,  of  which 
the  collar  was  made  for  the  Queen  of  Spain,  and  which 
evoked  so  much  admiration  at  St.  Cloud  and  Windsor 
Castle.  In  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  the  pearl 
fishery  was  actively  carried  on,  and  produced  great  wealth 
to  the  people  of  Lower  California. 

A  very  choice  large  pearl,  of  a  perfect  pear  shape,  and 
of  the  finest  water,  was  found  a  few  years  ago  in  the  Bay 
of  Panama. 

The  average  annual  value  of  the  pearls  collected  from 
the  Panama  fishery  has  been  about  ^25,000.  It  is,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  arrive  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  at  the 
total  value,  as  the  trade  is  conducted  with  great  secrecy, 
in  consequence  of  jealousies,  not  only  am.ongst  the  pearl- 
merchants,  but  even  between  the  divers,  who  offer  their 
property  to  the  dealer  with  all  mystery  and  every  reserva- 
tion. From  the  official  statement  of  exports,  pearls  to  the 
value  of  ^28,100  were  shipped  from  Panama  in  1865,  and 
;^23,iiO  in  1867.  In  1869  we  imported  pearls  of  the 
value  of  about  ^40,000  from  New  Granada,  the  Atlantic 
ports  of  America,  and  St.  Thomas.  The  pearl  fisheries 
on  the  Panama  side,  having  been  exhausted,  are  now  sus- 
pended. 

It  was  from  the  island  of  Margarita,  off"  the  Colombian 
coast,  that  Philip  II.  of  Spain  obtained,  in  1579,  a  mag- 
nificent pear-shaped  pearl,  weighing  250  carats,  which  was 
valued  at  ;^  30,000. 

In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  when  Columbus  first  discovered 
some  of  the   islands,  he  found    Indians   fishing   for  pearl 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  421 

oysters.  The  necks  of  the  females  were  adorned  with 
strings  of  pearls,  which  they  were  induced  to  exchange  for 
the  more  attractive  novelties  of  fragments  of  porcelain  ware 
painted  and  adorned  with  gaudy  colours.  The  natives 
entertain  the  old  fanciful  notion  which  the  earlier  natu- 
ralists did  :  they  suppose  the  pearls  formed  from  petrified 
dewdrops  in  connection  with  sunbeams.  We  can,  there- 
fore, well  credit  the  astonishment  of  Columbus  and  his 
mariners  when,  in  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  they  first  found  oysters 
{Dendrostrca,  Swai.)  clinging  to  the  branches  of  trees,  their 
shells  gaping  open,  ready,  as  was  supposed,  to  receive  the 
dew,  which  was  afterwards  to  be  transformed  to  pearls. 

The  Hindoos  poetically  ascribe  their  production  to  drops 
of  dew,  which  fall  into  the  shells  of  the  fish  in  which  they 
are  formed.  A  Brahmin  told  Mr.  Le  Beck  that  the  mollusc 
rises  to  the  surface  of  the  sea  in  the  month  of  May,  to 
catch  the  drops  in  his  shell,  and  that  he  thus  received  the 
germ  of  a  pearl,  which  is  then  impregnated  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun. 

Pliny  had  probably  some  version  of  this  Indian  idea, 
and,  as  usual,  he  improved  the  story  by  the  addition  of 
something  of  his  own.  He  says  :  "  The  pearls  vary  accord- 
ing to  quality  of  the  dew  of  which  they  are  formed  ;  if  that 
be  clear,  they  are  also  clear;  if  turbid,  they  are  turbid  ;  if 
the  weather  be  cloudy  when  the  precious  drop  is  received 
into  the  shell,  the  pearl  will  be  pale-coloured  ;  if  the  shell 
has  received  a  good  supply,  the  pearl  will  be  large  ;  but 
lightning  may  cause  it  to  close  too  suddenly,  and  then  the 
pearl  will  be  very  small ;  when  it  thunders  during  the 
reception  of  the  drop,  the  pearl  thence  resulting  will  be  a 
mere  hollow  shell  of  no  consistency." 

In  1 87 1  the  Government  of  Guayaquil  granted  per- 
mission to  the  owner  of  an  American  schooner  to  dive  for 


42  2       The  Commercial  Pivdiicts  of  the  Sea. 

I  pearls  on  that  coast,  on  condition  that  one-fifth  of  the 
I  amount  was  to  be  dehvered  to  the  Government.  There 
I  seems  to  be  an  abundance  of  pearls  of  very  good  quality, 
'  and  the  owner  of  the  schooner  was  quite  content  with  the 
trial  ;  35  ounces,  valued  at  ^20  an  ounce,  were  shipped 
from  there  in  1871. 
\  Perforated  pearls,  destined  to  serve  as  beads,  often  form 

a  part  of  the  contents  of  ancient  North  American  mounds. 
Squier  and  Davis  found  them  on  the  hearths  of  five  distinct 
groups  of  mounds  in  Ohio,  and  sometimes  in   such  abun- 
dance that  they  could  be  gathered  by  the  hundred.     Most 
of  them  had  greatly  suffered  by  the  action  of  fire,  being  in 
many  cases  so  calcined  that  they  crumbled  when  handled  ; 
yet  several  hundreds  were  found  sufficiently  well  preserved 
to  permit  of  their  being  strung.     The  pearls  in  question 
are  generally  of  irregular  form,  mostly  pear-shaped,  though 
perfectly  round  ones  are  also  amongst  them.     The  smaller 
specimens  measure  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
but  the  largest  has  a  diameter  of  no  less  than  three-fourths 
of  an  inch.     According  to  Squier  and  Davis,  pearl-bearing 
shells  occur  in  the  rivers  of  the  region  whose  antiquities 
they  describe,  but  not  in  such  abundance  that  they  could 
£i;have  furnished  the  amount  discovered  in  the  tumuli  ;  and 
jf '   ,the  pearls   of  the   fluviatile    shells,  moreover,  are   said   to 
^      jJ>^  be  far  inferior  in  size  to  those  recovered  from  the  altars. 
^r\l  (Mthe  latter,  they  think,  were  derived  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
.  ^''j^Aand  from  that  of  the  Mexican  Gulf.     It  is  a  fact  that  the 
\^^  Indians,  who  inhabited  the  present  Southern  States  of  the 
va^>^  Union,  made  an  extensive  use  of  pearls  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses.     This  is  attested  by  the  earliest  accounts,  and  more 
especially  by  the  chroniclers  of  De  Soto's  expedition  (the 
*  anonymous   Portuguese   gentleman    and    Garcilasso  de  la 

Vega),  who  speak  of  almost  fabulous  quantities  of  pearls 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  423 

which  that  daring  leader  and  his  followers  saw  among  the 
Indians  of  the  parts  traversed  by  them.  Pearls,  however, 
belonged  to  the  things  most  desired  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  accounts  relating  to  them,  perhaps,  may  be  somewhat 
exaggerated.  The  following  passage  from  Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega  is  of  particular  interest : — 

"  While  De  Soto  sojourned  in  the  province  of  Ichiaha, 
the  cacique  visited  him  one  day,  and  gave  him  a  string  of 
pearls  about  two  fathoms  {deux  brasses)  long.  This  present 
might  have  been  considered  a  valuable  one,  if  the  pearls 
had  not  been  pierced  ;  for  they  were  all  of  equal  size  and 
as  large  as  hazel  nuts.  Soto  acknowledged  this  favour  by 
presenting  the  Indian  with  some  pieces  of  velvet  and  cloth, 
which  were  highly  appreciated  by  the  latter.  He  then 
asked  him  concerning  the  pearl  fishing,  upon  which  he 
replied  that  this  was  done  in  his  province  ;  a  great  number 
of  pearls  were  stored  in  the  temple  of  the  town  of  Ichiaha, 
where  his  ancestors  were  buried,  and  he  might  take  as 
many  of  them  as  he  pleased.  The  general  expressed  his 
obligation,  but  observed  that  he  would  take  away  nothing 
from  the  temple,  and  that  he  had  accepted  his  present  only 
to  please  him.  He  wished  to  learn,  however,  in  what 
manner  the  pearls  were  extracted  from  the  shells.  The 
cacique  replied  that  he  would  send  people  out  to  fish  for 
pearls  all  night,  and  on  the  following  day  at  eight  o'clock 
{sic)  his  wish  should  be  gratified.  He  ordered  at  once  four 
boats  to  be  despatched  for  pearl  fishing,  which  should  be 
back  in  the  morning.  In  the  mean  time  much  wood  was 
burned  on  the  bank,  producing  a  large  quantity  of  glowing 
coals.  When  the  boats  had  returned,  the  shells  were  placed 
on  the  hot  coals,  and  they  opened  in  consequence  of  the 
heat.  In  the  very  first,  10  or  12  pearls  of  the  size  of  a  pea 
were  found,  and  handed  to  the  cacique  and  the  general, 


424       The  Cominercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

who  were  present.  They  thought  them  very  fine,  though 
the  fire  had  partly  deprived  them  of  their  lustre.  When 
the  general  had  satisfied  his  curiosity,  he  retired  to  take 
his  dinner.  While  thus  engaged,  a  soldier  came  in,  who 
told  him  that,  in  eating  some  of  the  oysters  caught  by  the 
Indians,  a  very  fine  and  brilliant  pearl  had  got  between  his 
teeth,  and  he  begged  him  to  accept  it  as  a  present  for  the 
Governess  of  Cuba.  Soto  very  civilly  refused  the  present, 
but  assured  the  soldier  that  he  was  just  as  much  obliged  to 
him  as  though  he  had  accepted  his  gift ;  he  would  try  to 
reward  him  one  day  for  his  kindness  and  for  the  regard  for 
his  wife.  He  advised  him  to  keep  his  (intended)  present, 
and  to  buy  horses  for  it  at  Havana.  The  Spaniards  who 
were  with  the  general  at  that  moment,  examined  the  pearl 
of  this  soldier,  and  some  who  considered  themselves  as 
experts  in  the  matter  of  jewellery,  thought  it  was  worth 
400  ducats.  It  had  retained  its  original  lustre,  not  having 
been  extracted  by  means  of  fire." 

Pearls  are  obtained  in  some  parts  of  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago. Those  from  the  Sulu  Islands  are  very  fine.  A 
companion  of  Magellan  mentions  having  seen  two  pearls, 
in  the  possession  of  the  Rajah  of  Borneo,  as  large  as 
pullets'  eggs. 

From  the  island  of  Labuan  pearls  are  sometimes  sent 
to  Singapore  to  the  value  of  about  £1 1,000  in  a  year.  In 
1867,  1990  taels  of  pearls,  worth  ;^  10,450,  were  exported, 
as  against  3853  taels  in  1868,  worth  i^i  1,554.  I"  1869  the 
shipments  were  only  to  the  value  of  ^2329  ;  and  in  1870, 
to  ;^S686. 

About  the  Society  Islands,  where  the  pearl  fishery  is 
carried  on,  pearls  are  most  frequently  found  in  oysters  of 
medium  size,  and  frequently  very  fine  ones  are  obtained. 
M.  Cuzent,   in   his   account  of  Tahiti,  published   in    i860, 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  425 

states  that  during  his  residence  there,  for  one  owned  by  the 
queen  a  German  merchant  had  offered  iJ^i200.  Pearls  to 
the  value  of  ^1600  were  shipped  from  the  Navigator's 
Islands  in  1858.  The  pearls  are  there  classed  under  four 
grades  : — 

1.  Those  of  a  regular  form  and  without  faults. 

2.  Those  of  a  round  form,  white,  and  of  a  good  lustre. 

3.  Pearls  of  irregular  form,  not  free  from  faults  or 
spots. 

4.  Knots  of  pearl,  or  those  which  have  adhered  to  the 
shell. 

The  average  value  of  these  kinds,  according  to  Aveight, 
ranges  as  follows  : — 

1st  Class. — -Pearls  weighing  the  tenth  part  of  a  gramme 
are  worth  about  3^-.  And  so  on  through  the  intermediate 
weights  up  to  those  weighing  \\\.Q  2\  grammes,  which  are 
valued  at  i^ioo  to  ^140. 

2nd  Class. —Thirty  grammes  of  pearl,  containing  800 
pearls,  would  be  worth  only  £df ;  whilst  the  same  weight 
in  50  pearls  would  be  worth  ^60. 

3rd  Class. — Thirty  grammes  of  pearls  of  this  kind 
would  be  worth  from  £^  to  ^^"4,  according  as  the  pearls 
were  more  or  less  tarnished  by  black  blemishes  or  dulness 
in  the  lustre. 

4th  Class. — Thirty  grammes  would  be  worth  30i'.  to  £2, 
according  to  their  regularity  of  form  and  brilliancy. 

The  commerce  in  pearls  in  the  Society  Islands  is  esti- 
mated at  about  ^^4000  a  year.  Some  are  of  remarkable 
beauty ;  and  among  others  may  be  noted  one  belonging  to 
the  Queen  of  the  Gambiers,  which  is  of  a  brilliant  orient, 
and  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  q^^.  The  large  pearls  found 
are,  of  course,  of  an  arbitrary  value ;  the  small,  or  seed- 
pearls,  are  sold  at  £2  to  £1  the  pound  at  Tahiti. 
19 


426       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


In  the  Gambler  Islands  magnificent  pearls  are  found, 
and  also  at  the  Paomotu  Isles. 

Of  all  the  substances  employed  in  jewellery,  the  pearl 
is  the  one  whose  value  it  is  the  most  difficult  to  establish, 
because  it  depends  upon  so  many  variable  conditions  of 
size,  form,  and  colour.  A  pearl  of  the  first  quality  should 
possess,  above  all  things,  a  fine  "  orient,"  or  water.  By  this 
expression  is  meant  a  pure  whiteness,  joined  to  a  lovely  lustre 
that  sparkles  in  the  light.  There  are  pearls,  too,  which, 
with  a  white  colour,  show  a  delicate  reflection  of  azure. 
These  are  the  most  highly  esteemed.  The  second  quality 
of  a  fine  pearl  is  that  it  should  be  perfectly  spherical,  or 
regularly  pear-shaped.  There  are  a  great  number  of  pearls 
whose  colour  has  a  yellowish  tinge.  This  alone  is  a  mark 
of  inferior  quality.  The  following  table  was  made  by  a 
celebrated  West  End  jeweller  to  compare  the  price  of 
pearls  of  the  first  choice  in  1865  and  1867  : — 


£ 

J. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d 

A  pearl 

of  3  grains 

0 

17 

0    to    0 

19 

0 

4 

I 

6 

0    , 

,        I 

12 

0 

5 

I 

7 

0    . 

»    2 

7 

0 

6 

3 

5 

0    > 

3 

15 

0 

8 

4 

12 

0    , 

5 

14 

0 

10 

10 

2 

0    , 

.   II 

2 

0 

12 

14 

2 

0    , 

,   16 

I 

0 

14 

18 

2 

0    , 

,   20 

3 

0 

16 

20 

3 

0    , 

.   30 

5 

0 

18 

30 

5 

0    ) 

,   40 

4 

0 

20 

40 

4 

0    , 

.   50 

8 

0 

24 

60 

10 

0    , 

,   72 

12 

0 

30 

85 

13 

0    , 

,  100 

17 

0 

Besides  the  individual  value  which  pearls  possess  in 
common  with  all  other  precious  stones,  and  which  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  preceding  table,  they  have  another  very 
important  one,  which  we  may  call  associative  value.  Thus 
it  happens  that  two  pearls  of  the  same  form,  the  same  size, 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  427 

the  same  colour,  etc.,  are  worth  a  much  higher  price  if  sold 
together  than  when  sold  apart.  A  necklace  in  which  the 
pearls  have  been  chosen  from  a  great  number  will  be  held 
at  double  the  value  of  a  necklace  where  the  pearls  have 
been  picked  from  a  smaller  number,  even  when  the  indi- 
vidual value  of  the  pearls  is  identical  in  both.  In  the  first 
place  the  harmony  will  be  complete,  while  in  the  second 
case  the  eye  will  detect  a  break  in  the  shades  in  passing 
from  one  pearl -to  another. 

Some  mother-of-pearl  shells  are  fished  in  Torres  Straits. 
It  seems  that  women  are  there  the  best  divers  for  the  shell. 
They  are  more  dependable.  The  pearl-shell  oyster  is  a 
magnificent  mollusc  ;  weighing  three  to  six  pounds,  and 
sometimes  ten  pounds.  Divers  come  up  with  one  under 
each  arm.  They  are  opened  at  once,  the  fish  used  as  food, 
and  the  pearls,  which  are  few  and  small,  carefully  pre- 
served. The  shells  sell  at  Sydney  for  ^^150  to  £\^o  per 
ton,  and  a  schooner  will  carry  30  to  40  tons. 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  Western  Australia  seem  to  become 
more  productive  yearly  ;  the  value  of  shells  exported  in 
1872  was  ;^25, 890,  against  ;;{^  1 2,895  worth  exported  in  the 
previous  year,  and  the  estimated  value  of  pearl  shells  sent 
from  the  colony  in  1873,  representing  the  take  of  the 
season  1872-73,  was  about  ^50,000.  The  value  of  the  pearl 
shell  exported  in  1874  was  ^^  58,928,  and  of  pearls  ;^6ooo, 
which  is  probably  much  below  the  mark.  The  natives  are 
employed  as  divers,  and  work  for  a  mere  subsistence  ;  but, 
owing  to  the  stringent  laws  existing  for  the  protection  of 
the  aborigines,  most  of  the  pearling  craft— in  fact,  all  who 
can— employ  Malays,  whom  they  bring,  under  agreement 
for  a  term  of  years,  from  the  Coromandel  coast  and  Java. 
These  men  are  paid  at  a  rate  varying  from  ^i  to  £2 
per  month,   and    are   kept  free  of  charge.     A  diver  will 


428       The  Co77imercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

frequently  bring  up  about  30  lbs.  weight  of  shells  after  one 
dive.  The  value  of  the  shells  in  the  colony  averages  from 
i^7  to  ;^8  per  cwt.  These  shells,  the  home  of  the  Melea- 
grina  margaritifera,  weigh  on  the  average  about  two 
pounds  per  pair,  and  measure  from  six  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  to  their  intrinsic  commercial  value,  rather 
than  to  the  pearls  they  contain,  that  the  north-west  fisheries 
owe  their  importance. 

Another  lucrative  fishery  exists  in  Shark's  Bay,  a  large 
inlet,  extending  in  a  south-easterly  direction  from  Dirk 
Hartog's  Island,  about  the  twenty-fifth  degree  of  south 
latitude,  to  a  distance  of  150  miles.  The  shells  found  in 
this  region  are  those  of  the  true  pearl  oyster,  the  Aviaua 
margaritifera^  an  oyster  only  slightly  larger  than  its  Euro- 
pean congener,  and  valuable  for  the  pearls  it  bears.  The 
shells  themselves  have  no  commercial  value. 

A  large  pearl  was  found  a  year  or  two  ago  on  the  north- 
west coast.  It  is  pear-shaped,  weighs  1 59  grains,  is  of  a  very 
fine  texture,  and  has  an  excellent  lustre.  Its  size  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  a  common  acorn,  though  it  is  of  course 
different  in  shape.  There  are  one  or  two  specks  on  the 
smaller  end,  which  is  also  scarcely  perfect  in  its  outline, 
but  the  thick  end  is  superb,  and  is  not  marred  by  the 
slightest  defect.  No  fair  estimate  of  its  value  could  be 
made  locally,  as  there  is  no  Australian  market  for  such 
gems.  The  pearl  was  found  by  a  pearling  expedition  fitted 
out  from  the  port  of  Melbourne. 

The  subject  of  marine  pearls  can  scarcely  be  dealt  with 
without  a  brief  allusion  to  the  river  pearls  which  are 
obtained  from  the  Alaniodon,  Anodonta,  Unios,  and  other 
shells,  in  different  countries. 

Many  of  the  fresh-water  mussels  produce  pearls  in  the 
mountain-streams  of  Britain,  Lapland,  and  Canada  ;   but 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  429 

they  are  generally  inferior  in  lustre  and  value  to  the 
marine  pearls.  Some  worth  ;^3  to  £\  each  have,  however, 
been  frequently  obtained,  and  specimens  of  great  individual 
value  have  ranged  from  ;^5o  up  to  ;^ioo.  It  has  long  been 
known  to  naturalists  and  antiquaries  that  pearls  of  great 
beauty  and  size  have  been  found  from  time  to  time  in  the 
Scotch  streams. 

Tytler,  in  his  "  History  of  Scotland,"  states  that,  so 
early  as  the  twelfth  century,  there  was  a  demand  for  Scotch 
pearls  abroad.  Those  in  the  possession  of  Alexander  I., 
he  says,  were  celebrated  for  their  size  and  beauty.  In 
1355  Scotch  pearls  are  referred  to  in  a  statute  of  the 
Parisian  goldsmiths,  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  no 
worker  in  gold  or  silver  should  set  them  with  oriental 
pearls,  except  in  large  ornaments  or  jewels  for  churches. 
They  are  noticed  again  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  the 
Scotch  pearl  trade  was  considered  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  worthy  of  the  attention  of  Parliament.  The  following 
extract  from  "  An  Accompt  Current  betwixt  Scotland  and 
England,"  by  John  Spruel,  Edinburgh,  1705,  shows  that 
they  were  then  well  known  : — "  If  a  Scotch  pearl  be  of  a 
fine  transparent  colour  and  perfectly  round,  and  of  any 
great  bigness,  it  may  be  worth  15,  20,  30,  40,  to  50  rix- 
doUars  ;  yea,  I  have  given  100  rix-dollars  {^£\6  c^s.  2d)  for 
one,  but  that  is  rarely  to  get  such.  ...  I  have  dealt  in 
pearls  these  40  years  and  more,  and  yet,  to  this  day,  I 
could  never  sell  a  necklace  of  fine  Scots  pearl  in  Scotland, 
nor  yet  fine  pendants,  the  generality  seeking  for  oriental 
pearls,  because  farther  fetched.  At  this  very  day  I  can 
show  some  of  our  own  Scots  pearl  as  fine,  more  hard  and 
transparent,  than  any  oriental.  It  is  true  that  the  oriental 
can  be  easier  matched,  because  they  are  all  of  a  yellow 
water,  yet  foreigners  covet  Scots  pearl." 


430       TJie  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

These  British  pearls  were  well  known  to  the  Romans, 
who,. nevertheless,  complained  that  they  were  small  and 
ill-coloured.  History  has  preserved  the  tradition  that  it 
was  this  source  of  wealth  that  tempted  the  Romans  to  our 
shores,  and  more  than  one  ancient  writer  refers  to  the 
shield,  studded  with  British  pearls,  which  Caesar  suspended 
as  an  offering  in  the  temple  of  Venus,  at  Rome.  Tacitus 
mentions  pearls  among  the  products  of  our  island,  but  adds 
that  they  were  generally  of  a  dusky,  livid  hue.  This,  he 
suggests,  was  owing  to  the  carelessness  and  inexperience  of 
the  persons  who  collected  them,  who  did  not  pluck  the 
shell-fish  alive  from  the  rocks,  but  were  content  to  gather 
what  the  waves  cast  on  the  beach.  Pliny  and  others  also 
describe  them  as  inferior,  on  account  of  their  dulness  and 
cloudiness,  to  the  jewels  of  the  East.  Coming  down  to 
times  less  remote,  we  find  Hector  Boece,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  expatiating  upon  the  pearls  of  Caledonia  with  much 
enthusiasm.  They  were,  he  says,  very  valuable,  "  bright, 
light,  and  round,  and  sometimes  of  the  quantity  of  the  nail 
of  one's  little  finger." 

It  seems  known  that  Sir  Richard  Wynn,  chamberlain 
to  the  queen  of  Charles  H.,  presented  her  Majesty  with  a 
pearl  taken  from  the  river  Conway,  which,  it  is  affirmed, 
is  still  honoured  with  a  place  in  the  regal  crown.  In  the 
sixteenth  century,  several  of  great  size  were  fished  from 
the  Irish  rivers.  One  that  weighed  36  carats  was  valued  at 
£\o,  and  other  single  pearls  were  sold  at  from  £,^  \os.  up 
to  ^10.  This  last  was  disposed  of  a  second  time  to  Lady 
Glenlealy,  who  put  it  into  a  necklace  and  refused  ^80  for 
it  from  the  Duchess  of  Ormond   ("  Philos.  Trans.   Abr.," 

p.  83). 

Oliver  Goldsmith,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  refers  to  a 
pearl  fishery  rented  on  the  Tay ;    and  Hugh  Miller  has 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fishe7'ies.  431 

spoken  of  rivers  in  the  north  famous  for  their  pearls.  As  a 
branch  of  industry,  however,  the  Scotch  pearl  fishery  seems 
to  have  been  well-nigh  forgotten,  when,  in  i860,  M.  Moritz 
Unger,  a  foreigner  then  in  Edinburgh,  conceived  the  idea 
of  making  a  tour  through  the  districts  where  the  pearl 
mussel  was  known  to  abound.  He  discovered  that  pearl 
fishing  was  not  altogether  forgotten,  and  found  pearls  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  in  the  hands  of  people  who 
did  not  estimate  their  value.  He  purchased  all  he  could 
procure.  The  consequence  was  that,  in  the  following  year, 
many  persons — colliers,  masons,  labourers,  and  others — 
began  to  devote  their  leisure  to  pearl  fishing,  and  some  of 
them  were  so  successful  as,  during  the  summer  months,  to 
make  as  much  as  ^^8  to  ^10  weekly.  Between  the  years 
1761  and  1764,  ^10,000  worth  of  pearls  were  sent  to 
London  from  the  rivers  Tay  and  Isla,  but  the  trade  carried 
on  in  the  corresponding  years  of  this  century  was  far  more 
than  double  that  amount.  M.  Unger  estimated  the  pearls 
found  in  1865  to  be  of  the  value  of  about  ^^  12,000.  In  the 
summer  of  1S62,  which  was  dry  and  favourable  to  fishing 
operations,  more  pearls  were  produced  than  during  any 
previous  year  in  Scotland,  and  at  that  time  the  average 
price  of  a  Scotch  pearl  was  £2  6s.  to  ^os.  ;  ^^5  was  con- 
sidered a  high  price.  Since  the  fisheries  were  revived,  their 
price  has  rapidly  risen,  and  they  now  fetch  prices  ranging 
from  ;^5  to  ^20.  One  Scotch  pearl  was  bought  by  Her 
Majesty  for  40  guineas.  The  Duchess  of  Hamilton  and 
the  Empress  of  the  French  also  purchased  fine  specimens 
at  high  prices,  and  M.  Unger  had  in  his  possession  a  neck- 
lace of  Scotch  pearls,  which  he  valued  at  ^350. 

A  good  pearl  should  be  either  globular  or  pear-shaped  ; 
according  to  Jeffries,  a  celebrated  jeweller,  "  their  com- 
plexion must  be  milk-white,  not  of  a  dead  and  lifeless,  but 


432       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

of  a  clear  and  lively  hue,  free  from  stains,  fouls,  spots, 
specks,  or  roughness."  He  condemns  all  coloured  pearls, 
although  the  Hindoos  prefer  a  yellow  tinge,  and  some 
nations  admire  the  red.  He  values  them  according  to  their 
weight,  in  the  following  manner : — A  pearl  of  one  carat 
(three  grains  and  one-fifth)  is  valued  at  Zs.  ;  one  of  two 
carats  at  four  times  that  amount ;  one  of  three  carats  at 
nine  times,  and  so  on  in  a  square  proportion,  multiplying 
the  number  of  carats  by  itself  and  the  product  by  8^-. 
But  the  price  set  upon  some  pearls  of  ancient  days  exceeds 
this  estimate  enormously ;  and  even  now  a  pearl  of  very 
extraordinary  beauty  would  most  probably  receive  a 
valuation  upon  other  grounds  than  its  weight. 

The  enormous  value  attached  in  ancient  times  to  some 
extraordinary  pearls  seems  to  be  almost  fabulous.  Much  of 
this  must,  of  course,  be  attributed  to  the  caprice  which  will 
pay  any  price,  however  excessive,  for  whatever  is  unique  of 
its  kind,  the  possession  of  which  may  be  an  object  of  com- 
petition ;  and  the  manufacture  of  artificial  pearls  had  not 
then  lowered  the  price  of  the  real  jewel.  But  though  no 
lono-er  so  extravagantly  valued,  the  pearl  must  always  be  a 
favourite  ;  its  delicate  and  silvery  lustre,  in  the  words  of  an 
admirer,  "  relieves  the  eye  of  gazing  at  the  brilliancy  of  the 
diamond,  as  the  soft  brightness  of  the  moon  after  the 
dazzling  fire  of  the  sun." 

There  were  the  often-mentioned  pearls  of  Cleopatra,  one 
of  which  that  celebrated  queen  drank  dissolved  in  vinegar 
before  Marc  Antony,  while  the  other,  saved  from  a  similar 
fate,  was  slit  into  halves  to  form  earrings  for  the  statue 
of  Venus  in  the  Pantheon.  Julius  Caesar  presented  to 
Servilia  a  pearl  valued  at  6,000,000  sesterces,  or  nearly 
^50,000.  Clodius,  the  glutton,  swallowed  one  worth 
;^8ooo. 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  433 

The  example  of  Cleopatra  found  an  imitator  even  in 
sober  England,  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  not  otherwise 
famous  for  acts  of  folly,  still  so  mistook  the  meaning  of 
loyalty  that  he  ground  a  pearl,  which  had  cost  him  £  1 5,000, 
into  a  cup  of  wine  in  order  thus  fitly  to  drink  the  health  of 
his  great  queen  ! 

The  pearl  belonging  to  the  Shah  of  Persia,  seen  by 
Tavernius  in  1633,  was  valued  at  32,000  tomans,  equal  at 
that  time  to  double  the  number  of  pounds  sterling.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  obtained  at  Catifa,  in  Arabia,  where 
a  pearl  fishery  existed  in  the  time  of  Pliny.  It  was  pear- 
shaped,  perfect  in  all  respects,  and  nearly  three  inches 
long.  This  pearl  is  believed  to  be  the  one  which  was  in 
possession  of  the  late  King  of  Persia,  Fateh  Ali  Shah. 

A  pearl  presented  by  the  republic  of  Venice  to  Soliman, 
the  Emperor  of  the  Turks,  was  valued  at  .^16,000.  The  large 
pearl  in  the  crown  of  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  weighed  30 
carats,  and  was  the  size  of  a  pear.  (?)  Pope  Leo  X.  bought 
a  pearl  of  a  Venetian  jeweller  for  the  sum  of  ^^  14,000.  A 
lady  in  Madrid,  in  the  year  1605,  wore  an  American  pearl 
which  cost  31,000  ducats. 

A  large  Java  pearl,  curiously  set,  was  shown  at  Madrid 
a  few  years  ago.  It  was  made  to  represent  a  siren,  or 
mermaid,  dressing  her  hair ;  her  body  was  formed  of  the 
pearl,  which  was  of  a  long  oval  form,  and  beautifully  pure 
white  ;  the  head  and  arms  were  of  white  enamel,  and  the 
lower  extremity,  forming  the  fish,  of  green  enamel.  The 
whole  was  finely  carved,  and  on  the  girdle  were  the 
following  words  :  "  Fallunt  aspectus  cantusque  syrenis." 

The  most  beautiful  pearl  known  is  in  the  Museum  of 
Zosima,  in  Moscow.  It  weighs  very  nearly  28  carats.  It  is 
perfectly  globular,  and  so  beautifully  brilliant  that  at  first 
sight  it  appears  transparent.     It  was  bought  by  Zosima  at 


434       ^-^^^  Commercial  Pj^oducts  of  the  Sea. 

Leghorn,  of  a  captain  of  an  East  India  ship.  This  splendid 
pearl,  which  has  been  named  the  Pellegrina,  is  one  of  the 
objects  of  a  visit  to  Moscow. 

In  the  French  crown  jewels  there  are  some  veiy  fine 
pearls.  Among  others,  a  collection  of  408  pearls,  each 
weighing  16  grammes,  of  a  perfect  white,  round,  and  of  a 
magnificent  orient.  They  are  valued  at  ;^ 20,000.  Also  a 
pearl  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  of  a  very  beautiful  quality, 
valued  at  ;^i6oo,  and  others  of  less  value. 

"  As  this  admiration  for  fine  pearls  has  been  the  common 

^yeakness  of  man  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries,  we  need 

not  wonder  at  their  playing  a  prominent  part  in  religious 

writings.     The  Talmud  has  a  pretty  story,  teaching  us  that 

those  who  believe  in  it  esteemed  but  one  object  in  nature 

of  higher  value  than  pearls.     When  Abraham  approached 

Egypt,  the  book  tells  us,  he  locked  Sara  in  a  chest  that 

none  might  behold  her  dangerous  beauty.     But  when  he 

was  come  to  the  place  of  paying  custom,  the  officer  said, 

'  Pay  custom.'      And  he    said,  '  I   will  pay    the    custom.' 

They  said  to  him,  *  Thou  carriest  clothes.'     And  he  said, 

'  I  will  pay  for  clothes.     Then  they  said  to  him,  *  Thou 

carriest  gold.'      And  he  answered  them,  '  I  will  pay  for 

gold.'      On  this   they  further  said,  '  Surely,  thou  bearest 

the  fine   silk.'     He  replied,  '  I  will   pay   custom   for  the 

finest   silk.'     Then  they  said,   '  Surely,  it  must  be  pearls 

that  thou  takest  with  thee.'     And  he  only  answered, '  I  will 

pay  for  pearls."     Seeing  that  they  could  name  nothing  of 

value   for   which   the    patriarch   was   not  willing   to   pay 

custom,  they  said,  "  It  cannot  be  but  thou  open  the  box 

and  let  us  see  what  is  within."     So  they  opened  the  box, 

and  the  whole  land  of  Egypt  was  illumined  by  the  lustre  01 

Sara's  beauty — far  exceeding  even  that  of  pearls. 

"Hence  pearls  are  repeatedly  used  in  Holy  Writ  also  for 


Pearls  and  the  Pearl  Fisheries.  435 

the  most  solemn  comparisons,  and  to  denote  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection.  In  the  Old  Testament  wisdom  is 
praised  as  above  pearls  ;  and  in  the  New  Testament  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  compared  to  a  pearl  of  great  price, 
which,  when  a  merchant  had  found  it,  he  went  and  sold  all 
that  he  had,  and  bought  it.  Even  the  New  Jerusalem  was 
revealed  to  St.  John  under  the  figure  of  an  edifice  with 
twelve  doors,  each  of  which  was  a  single  pearl."  * 

*  **  Putnam's  Magazine.'' 


43^       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CORAL  AND   THE   CORAL   FISHERIES. 

Scientific  description  of  coral — Varieties  of— Commercial  classifications  of  coral 
— Statistics  of  trade  in  France  and  England — Seats  of  manufacture  in 
Italy — Various  coral  fisheries  in  the  Mediterranean — Statistics  of  boats 
employed — British  imports  of  coral — Indian  trade  in  coral. 

Science  and  commerce  frequently  work  hand  in  hand,  and 
materially  aid  each  other ;  but  in  some  instances  commerce 
has  been  in  advance  of  science,  and  this  may  be  said  of 
the  search  for  coral  and  its  application  for  ornament,  which 
have  been  prosecuted  for  ages  by  the  uninformed,  whilst 
learned  naturalists  have  been  debating  many  moot  points 
as  to  the  growth,  formation,  and  special  localities  of  the 
coral  varieties. 

Our  scientific  men  are  busy  dredging  and  exploring  the 
great  depths  of  the  ocean,  but  they  have  as  yet  thrown 
little  light  on  those  questions  which  are  of  paramount 
importance  to  the  fishers  for  and  workers  in  coral — as,  for 
instance,  why  the  important  banks  of  good  coral  are  limited 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  what  are  the  requirements  ot 
these  polypes  for  the  aggregation  and  formation  of  this  now 
much  sought  for  article  of  commerce.  As  I  remarked  in  a 
lecture  delivered  before  the  Society  of  Arts  a  few  years 
ago,  we  are  still  ignorant  on   many  points  of  the  highest 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries. 


437 


importance  relating  to  the  production  and  collection  of  this 
handsome  substance.  The  little  that  we  do  know,  however, 
leads  to  the  belief  that  the  growth  of  coral  is  rapid  ;  that 

Fig.  30. 


Covallium  nobilis,  or  red  coral ;  with  a  piece  magnified,  showing  the  polypes. 


43S       The  Com7nercial  Pi'oducts  of  the  Sea. 

its  development  is  simple,  and  accommodates  itself  to  very 
varied  circumstances ;  that  detached  fragments  from  the 
bunch  or  principal  stem  have  a  vitality,  and  will  volun- 
tarily attach  themselves  to  certain  fixed  substances,  for 
continuing  their  development  and  forming  new  trunks  ;  in 
fact,  objects  thrown  into  the  sea  in  the  vicinity  of  coral 
banks  will  infallibly  be  found  covered  with  coral  in  a  few 
months.  But  what  is  most  valuable  to  be  known  in  regu- 
lating the  search  for  coral,  and  for  rendering  the  return 
more  productive  and  more  certain,  is  to  ascertain  at  what 
age  coral  attains  its  largest  size ;  how  long  it  takes  for  an 
exhausted  coral  bank  to  again  become  rich  and  flourishing. 
at  what  period  the  eggs  are  laid  ;  how  are  the  products 
disseminated  ;  at  what  period  does  the  budding  take  place, 
and  how  long  does  it  last  ?  These  are  most  important 
questions,  on  the  solving  of  which  rests  the  complete 
regeneration  and  progressive  increase  of  the  coral  fisher}', 
and  they  are  questions  as  yet  unsolved  by  naturalists. 

Professor  Lacaze-Duthiers,  who  was  charged  with  a 
mission  to  the  coast  of  Algeria  to  report  upon  this  zoophyte, 
has  given  us  the  results  of  his  investigation  and  curious 
experience  : — 

"  To  describe  correctly,"  he  says,  "  a  branch  of  coral 
we  must  bear  in  mind  the  peculiar  property  of  germination 
which  belongs  to  the  immense  class  of  zoophytes,  and  we 
can  then  consider  it  as  a  colony  of  individuals  derived 
from  one    zoophyte,  itself  originating    from    an   ovum  or 

"  The  stem  of  the  coral  is  divisible  into  two  constant 
and  distinct  parts :  a  central  axis,  hard  and  brittle,  like 
stone,  which  is  the  part  used  in  commerce,  and  a  soft  cover- 
ing or  epidermis,  which  easily  yields  to  the  nail  when  it  is 
fresh,  but  is  friable  or  brittle  when  dry. 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  439 

"This  epidermis  appears  indented  by  small  cavities 
upon  its  surface,  and  we  can  often  perceive  radiated  pores 
corresponding  to  these  cavities.  In  observing  the  live  coral, 
we  see  that  out  of  these  holes  protrude  the  little  flowers 
that  the  naturalists  Maligny  and  Peissonnel  recognized 
as  the  animals,  and  which  they  compared  to  small  sea- 
nettles. 

"Nothing  can  equal  the  delicacy  and  graceful  disposition 
of  these  little  milk-white  rosettes,  which  contrast  admirably 
with  the  brilliant  red  of  the  coral. 

"  Their  arms,  which  surround  their  mouths,  are  ciliated, 
or  covered  with  fine  fringes,  which,  ever  moving  and 
agitating  the  water,  create  a  circular  current  that  carries 
to  the  centre,  and  consequently  into  their  mouths,  the 
minute  matters  that  sustain  them. 

"  The  epidermis  is  composed  of  a  very  delicate  white 
tissue,  and  presents  through  its  whole  thickness  the  long 
cavities  of  the  polypes.  It  is  traversed  by  canals,  which 
are  very  numerous,  and  establish  a  solidity  between  all 
parts,  sprinkled  with  small  calcareous  corpuscles,  hard, 
resisting,  and  all  armed  with  unassailable  bundles  of  points, 
having  a  special  form. 

"  The  structure  of  the  animals  is  otherwise  very  simple  ; 
they  present  the  appearance  of  a  pocket  or  of  an  open 
purse.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  with  arms,  and  conducts 
to  the  central  or  penetrating  cavity  the  food,  and  there  we 
find  eight  lamillse  radiating  towards  the  centre." 

There  are  various  kinds  of  coral,  so-called,  to  be  met 
with  in  the  shops  of  shell-dealers  and  naturalists  sold 
under  the  name  of  fan  coral,  brush  coral,  brainstones,  etc., 
which  serve  for  ornamenting  chimney-pieces,  cabinets, 
museums,  drawing-room  tables,  aquaria,  etc.  Such,  for 
instance,  as    the  white   coral,   formerly  called    Madrepora 


440       ^-^^  Com7nercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

virginea,  and  now  named  Oailina  virgiiiea,  the  brainstone 
coxd\{Mendrina  ccreh'iforfnis) , the:  black  coral  {G.Antipatkes), 
and  the  organ-pipe  coral  {Tubipora  intisica),  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  regular  arrangement  of  its  cylindrical  dark 
crimson  tubes  side  by  side.  Being  much  cheaper  than  the 
ordinary  solid  red  coral,  this  last  kind  is  frequently  used 
as  a  representative  of  coral  in  cabinets  of  economic 
products. 

But  it  is  with  jeweller's  coral  that  we  have  to  deal, 
which  is  alone  used  for  articles  of  personal  decoration  and 
works  of  art.     Occasionally  the  re^'  coral  is  found  white, 


Varieties  of  coral. 


or  without  any  colouring  matter  ;  the  tips  are  bored,  and 
the  pieces  are  threaded  into  negligees,  or  they  are  cut  into 
links  for  forming  chains.  At  the  Naples  Maritime  Inter- 
national Exhibition  a  magnificent  branch  of  black  coral 
from  Trapani  was  shown,  which  formed  a  finish  to  the 
trophy  of  aboriginal  arms  and  weapons  exhibited  from  the 
Pacific.  At  Jedda  there  is  a  black  coral  fishery  which 
extends  fifty  miles  north  and  south.  From  taking  a  fine 
polish,  the  black  is  fashioned  into  beads  and  mouth-pieces 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  441 

for  cigars.  The  dull  white  is  not  quite  so  hard,  and  from 
not  polishing  well  is  sold  cheaper.  It  is  often  deteriorated 
by  being  worm-eaten. 

Coral  is,  after  pearls,  the  handsomest  and  most  valuable 
production  obtained  from  the  sea.  Naturalists  range  it,  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  at  the  head  of  zoophytes  or  animal- 
plants.  It  presents  to  the  fisherman  the  appearance  of  a 
branching  shrub  without  leaves,  of  a  red  or  rose  colour, 
compact  and  solid.  Coral  has  the  hardness  and  brilliancy 
of  agate  ;  it  polishes  like  gems  and  shines  like  garnet,  with 
the  tints  of  the  ruby.  The  larger  branches  are  used  for 
carving,  and  as  the  material  is  durable,  well  suited  to  give 
definite  outlines  to  the  sculptor's  work,  great  labour  and 
ingenuity  are  frequently  expended  on  objects  of  art  wrought 
in  this  material.  The  Chinese,  Hindoos,  and  Singalese 
have  all  tried  their  skill  in  carving  coral,  but  the  finest  and 
most  artistic  work  emanates  from  the  Italian  workshops  of 
Naples,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn. 

Large,  perfect,  well-shaped  beads  are  by  far  the  most 
valuable  form  of  coral,  and  these  have  greatly  increased 
in  estimation  of  late  years.  Many  of  the  finest  are  sent  to 
China,  where  they  are  in  demand  for  the  mandarin's  red 
button  of  rank  worn  on  the  cap.  Some  of  the  natives  of 
India  have  a  preference  for  what  may  be  called  worm- 
eaten  beads,  and  tons  of  these,  which  would  not  find 
favour  in  Europe,  go  to  the  East,  where  they  are  esteemed 
from  a  superstitious  belief  that  gods  dwell  in  the  little 
recesses  or  cavities  of  this  coral. 

The  Chinese,  who  are  most  patient  and  skilful  in  all 
their  work,  used  to  prepare  strings  of  small  rows  of  seed- 
coral  beads  for  embroidery,  the  boring  of  which  was  most 
minute.  The  practice  or  art  would  seem  to  have  become 
obsolete,  for  I  have  only  met  with  strings  of  them  in  the 


442       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

collection  of  Messrs.  Phillips,  Cockspur  Street,  London, 
where  they  are  shown  as  a  great  curiosity. 

A  large  part  of  the  coral  is  wasted  in  the  process  of 
grinding  and  filing  to  convert  it  into  uniform  well-shaped 
beads,  and  this,  of  course,  adds  greatly  to  the  cost.  It  is 
not  every  one  who  can  obtain  and  possess  such  a  magnifi- 
cent row  of  coral  beads  as  the  well-known  necklace  be- 
longing to  Mrs.  Edward  Baring. 

Much  of  the  manufacturing  process — grinding,  drilling, 
and  polishing  the  coral — is  carried  on  by  women.  The 
working  of  beads  consists  of  three  different  operations — 
cutting,  piercing,  and  rounding — and  is  principally  executed 
by  the  females  of  the  Val  du  Bisagno,  in  Italy.  The  manner 
in  which  it  is  distributed  among  the  different  communes 
affords  a  striking  example  of  the  principle  of  subdivision  of 
labour. 

All  the  operatives  employed  in  cutting  belong  to  about 
100  families  in  the  commune  of  Assio  ;  those  in  piercing 
and  rounding  to  about  6o  families  living  in  other  parts  of 
the  valley.  Every  village  works  exclusively  at  beads  of  a 
fixed  size.  In  Genoa  each  manufacturer  employs  from  lo 
to  20  or  more  women,  who  submit  the  coral  to  a  preparatory 
process  before  it  is  given  to  the  workers  of  Bisagno.  Thirty 
or  40  men  and  women  are  employed  in  their  own  homes 
in  cutting  coral  into  facets.  There  are  also  about  30  en- 
gravers of  coral  and  cameos.  In  all  from  5000  to  6000 
persons  gain  their  livelihood  in  the  province  of  Genoa 
either  by  fishing  for,  working  on,  or  selling  coral,  and  this 
craft  produces  a  revenue  of  ;^8o,000.  Exports  of  coral 
are  made  from  Genoa  to  Austria,  Hungary,  Poland, 
England,  Aleppo,  Madras,  and  Calcutta. 

Those  who  are  connoisseurs  of  coral  know  that  of  late 
years  it  has  risen  considerably  in  the  estimation  of  the  fair 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries..  443 

sex.  A  somewhat  arbitrary  standard  of  beauty  has,  how- 
ever, been  established  in  regard  to  the  colour.  We  must 
no  more  think  of  a  choice  piece  of  coral  when  we  talk  of 
"coral  lips,"  than  we  must  of  a  bigarreaii  when  we  speak 
of  "  cherry  lips."  Coral,  to  be  rare  and  valuable,  must  be 
of  a  delicate  pinkish,  flesh-like  hue,  uniform  in  tint  through- 
out, and  in  large  pieces. 

The  principal  commercial  varieties  distinguished  are 
red,  subdivided  into  deep  crimson  red,  pale  red,  and 
vermilion,  which  is  rare  ;  black,  clear  white,  and  dull  white, 
which  is  the  most  common.  The  delicate  rose  or  flesh- 
coloured,  which  is  the  most  prized,  is  sold  at  very  high 
prices,  as  it  is  entirely  a  fancy  article. 

Red  coral  is  classified  by  some  dealers  into  twelve 
shades  of  colour,  besides  the  white  and  pink  coral. 

In  some  countries  red  coral  is  classified  into  the  fol- 
lowing five  commercial  grades  : — i,  froth  of  blood  ;  2, 
flower  of  blood  ;  3,  4,  5,  blood  of  first,  second,  and  third 
qualities. 

Madrepore  and  other  shov.y  corals  are  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  The  horny  axis  of  black  flexible  coral 
{Plesaiira  crassa)  is  used  for  canes  and  whips  in  the  Ber- 
mudas, and  the  axis  of  fan  coral  {RJiipidogorgid)  for 
skimmers  in  the  same  islands.  Coral  is  used  for  building 
purposes  in  the  Pacific  islands,  Mauritius,  the  Seychelles, 
and  other  places.  Coral  rock  of  recent  formation  {Coquina) 
is  employed  in  Florida  in  the  manufacture  of  ornamental 
vases  and  earrings.  Calcined  coral  is  used  for  dentrifices. 
as  an  antacid,  etc.  Lime  is  also  made  by  calcining  coral 
and  coral  rock. 

The  dealers  and  workers  in  coral  recognize  rough  tips 
and  polished  tips,  fragments,  roots  of  branches,  suitable 
for  making   earrings,   and   coral    tulips   for  shaping   into 


444       "^^^^  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

ornaments.  The  branches  of  coral  assume  the  espalier  shape 
and  other  forms.  Negligee,  eollettc,  and  olive-shaped  beads 
are  made. 

Coral  is  valued  according  to  its  bulk,  colour,  sound- 
ness and  freedom  from  defects.  Certain  rare  kinds,  of 
pale  tints,  are  worth  20  times  their  weight  in  pure  gold. 

The  ornamental  applications  of  coral  are  very  varied, — 
negligees,  beads  {biihls  and  boiitons),  bracelets,  brooches, 
ear-drops,  tiaras,  combs,  hair-pins,  chains,  crosses,  links ; 
studs,  and  scarf-pins  for  gentlemen,  settings  for  rings, 
charms,  pendants,  parasol  garnitures,  cameos,  and  foliage ; 
coral  and  bells  for  children  ;  and  watch-cases  are  some- 
times inlaid  with  pale  rose-colour  coral. 

The  Romans  used  to  hang  beads  of  red  coral  on  the 
cradles  and  round  the  necks  of  infants,  to  "  preserve  and 
fasten  their  teeth,"  and  save  them  from  the  "  falling 
sickness."  In  modern  days  they  are  used  to  prevent  the 
skin  of  the  neck  from  chafing,  and  the  child's  coral  and 
bells  is  not  yet  obsolete. 

The  general  use  of  coral  dates  back  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  under  Francis  I.  Naples,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn 
have  been  from  old  times  the  three  great  centres  to  which 
the  rav/  material  has  been  carried,  and  where  skilful  arti- 
ficers have  established  themselves  in  order  to  work  at  its 
transformation  into  ornaments.  In  the  four  principal  manu- 
factories, and  at  several  second-rate  establishments  for 
working  on  coral  in  Leghorn,  there  are  more  than  1000 
women  employed  preparing  about  50,000  lbs.  weight  of 
coral  into  little  beads,  round,  egg-shaped,  smooth  and  cut 
into  facets,  etc.  The  greater  part  is  sent  to  India ;  a 
large  portion  is  exported  to  Germany,  especially  for 
necklaces  of  an  inferior  quality  destined  to  serve  as  funeral 
ornaments,  and  some  to  Russia,  where  coral  is  in  great 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  445 

demand.     France  does  not  use  much  coral  for  ornaments, 
but  the  fashion  there  is  reviving. 

The  average  annual  imports  of  rough  coral  into  France 
have  been  as  follows  : — 


Kilogrammes. 

Value  in  francs 

In  the  ten  years  ending  1856 

..      10,450      ... 

253,804 

„                    „            i8t)6 

...      19,960      .. 

1,418,976 

1876 

...      21,596      .. 

1,890,356 

The  imports  of  worked  coral,  unmounted,  in  the  same 
period  was  as  follows  : — 


1856     ... 
1806 

Kilogrammes. 
tl,t)00       ... 

11,831    ... 

Value  in  francs 
...      1,125,805 
...      3,060,010 

1876     ... 

...     14,553   ... 

...      5,078,062 

In  America  and  the  West  Indies  the  black  population 
have  a  great  fancy  for  coral.  Morocco  buys  largely,  and 
so  does  India.  The  caravans  transport  bijous  and  jewels 
fashioned  of  it  to  the  interior.  There,  according  to 
religious  custom,  the  dead  carry  with  them  to  the  tomb 
the  ornaments  they  have  worn  in  their  lifetime,  and  each 
year  sees  buried  a  quantity  of  coral,  more  or  less  consider- 
able, which  has  to  be  replaced.  Coral  manufactories  em- 
ploying a  large  number  of  workmen  exist  at  Marseilles. 
The  exports  of  manufactured  coral  from  Europe  were  stated 
in  1862  to  be  of  the  value  of  15,000,000  francs  (i^6oo,ooo), 
of  which  Marseilles  made  about  2,000,000  francs. 

As  few  persons  have  access  to  the  bulky  returns  con- 
stituting the  Blue  Books  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  which 
give  the  statistics  of  the  annual  imports  of  various  articles 
mto  the  United  Kingdom,  it  may  be  desirable  to  condense 
the  figures  as  regards  coral,  so  as  to  furnish  a  retrospect 
of  the  commerce  in  this  marine  product.  The  three  items 
enumerated  in  the  returns  are  "  Coral  in  fragments,"  "  Coral, 
whole,    polished    or   unpolished,"    and    '*  Coral    nc^li^e'es." 


446       The  Coni7nercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Coral  beads  are  also  imported  done  up  into  strings  of 
assorted  sizes,  making  five  necklaces,  also  in  large  bundles 
of  36  strings  assorted,  weighing  135  ounces  troy.  A  most 
objectionable  procedure  in  the  coral  trade  is  the  practice 
of  attaching  to  the  beads  great  masses  of  raw  silk  and 
cotton  at  the  ends,  amounting  to  fully  30  per  cent,  of  the 
weight,  and  as  coral  is  sold  by  the  ounce,  this  is  an  absolute 
fraud  on  the  buyer.  The  official  statements  of  the  imports 
of  coral  into  the  kingdom  are  no  reliable  criterion  of  the 
actual  value  of  the  trade,  because  it  is  chiefly  the 
coarse  and  rough  coral  that  is  entered  at  the  Custom 
House ;  merchants,  jewellers,  and,  indeed,  private  indi- 
viduals, who  purchase  in  the  Mediterranean  the  finer  kinds 
of  coral,  and  jewellery  made  of  it,  do  not  trust  it  in  cases 
as  merchandise,  but  bring  it  in  their  personal  baggage. 
The  aggregate  net  value  of  all  the  coral  imported,  ac- 
cording to  the  Customs  returns,  never  reaches  ^50,000  in 
the  year,  and,  indeed,  in  the  last  years  of  which  we  have 
any  official  record  it  was  under  i^  18,000  or  i^20,ooo;  but 
this  is  a  very  fallacious  statement,  for  probably  the  value 
of  the  coral  exceeds  i^  100,000  a  year.  Taking,  however, 
only  the  computed  official  value  of  that  entered  at  the 
Customs,  there  was  received  in  England,  between  i860 
and  1870,  coral  of  different  kinds  valued  at  upwards  of 
^^300,000. 

In  weight  the  quantity  of  the  several  kinds  imported 
varies  considerably.  Thus,  of  coral  in  fragments,  some- 
times, as  in  1856  and  1861,  14,000  to  16,000  lbs.  weight 
are  received, — in  ordinary  years  the  average  is  not  half 
that  amount.  Of  whole,  or  perfect  pieces,  the  quantity 
ranges  from  400  to  lOOO  lbs.  Of  negligees,  the  quantity 
has  declined  considerably.  In  1859  about  3000  lbs.  weight 
came    in,   but   the  last   few  years    it   has   only   averaged 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  447 

500  to  600  lbs.  In  beads  there  is  the  same  fluctation  in 
the  quantity.  Some  years  from  3000  to  4000  lbs.  come  in  ; 
of  late  years  there  is  only  an  average  of  1000  lbs.  These 
figures  represent  merely  the  merchant's  coral  for  re-export, 
and  furnish  no  estimate  whatever  of  the  choice  coral  of 
fashion,  which  depends  for  its  value  entirely  on  the  gold- 
smith's and  jeweller's  art  in  arranging  and  setting,  variety, 
form  and  style,  and  represents  a  value  far  surpassing  all 
that  has  been  quoted.  It  comprises  articles  of  beauty 
and  imagination  which  defy  any  detailed  description,  and 
which  even  illustration  could  not  do  justice  to. 

Coral  beads  were  always  favourite  ornaments  in  this 
country.  In  the  inventory  of  one  John  Post  (who  died  in 
1524),  "late  y^  king's  servant,"  in  the  churchwarden's 
accompts  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill,  London,  we  find  the  following 
items:  '^  i\  oz.  of  corall,  2s.  6d.  ;  jewels  for  her  body,  a 
pair  of  corall  bedes,  gaudyed  with  gaudes  of  silver  and 
gilt,  10  oz.  at  3^-.  4.d.,  £1  it^s.  4d" — a  goodly  price  in  those 
days. 

Various  handsome  panires  of  coral  have  been  shown 
from  time  to  time  at  the  different  International  Exhibi- 
tions. Some  very  fine  specimens  of  red  coral  in  the 
natural  state  were  exhibited  in  the  Algerian  Court  at  the 
London  Exhibition  in  1862.  The  Ionian  Islands  also 
e.xhibited  some  small  specimens  of  coral  from  Ithaca. 
From  New  Caledonia  a  substance  having  some  resem- 
blance to  coral  was  also  shown  under  the  name  of  "rose 
coral." 

A  set  of  pink  coral  shown  at  the  Dublin  Exhibition 
in  1865,  consisting  of  a  tiara,  bracelets,  solitaires,  comb, 
earrings,  brooch,  necklace,  and  pendant,  was  valued  at 
;^iOOO,  though  the  value  was  represented  almost  alone  by 
the  coral.      Signor  Gismondi,  the  designer  and  carver  of 


448       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  set  of  ornaments  had,  it  was  stated,  been  20  years 
collecting  the  pieces  inserted  therein.  Of  the  carving  of 
the  coral  into  flowers  and  foliage,  it  need  only  be  said  that 
it  was  as  delicate  as  it  was  bold  and  deep,  and  sustained 
the  reputation  of  the  Italians  for  skill  in  glyptics. 

Guiseppe  Martucci,  of  Naples,  also  showed  at  the 
Dublin  International  Exhibition  in  1865  an  arabesque 
coral  handle  for  a  parasol,  eight  inches  long,  carved  in 
relief  out  of  a  single  piece,  with  fruit,  animals,  leaves,  etc., 
valued  at  £j2. 

The  International  Maritime  Exhibition  held  in  1871 
at  Naples,  the  head-quarters  of  the  coral  dredging  and 
working  operations,  afforded  an  admirable  opportunity  for 
displaying  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  natural  and 
artistic  productions.  On  that  occasion  the  leading  coral 
workers  and  jewellers  sent  magnificent  examples.  Mr. 
Phillips,  being  a  commissioner,  was  placed  hors  concoiirs. 
Casalta  and  Morabito  exhibited  coral  sets  valued  at  from 
9000  to  16,000  Italian  lire  or  francs  ;  but  their  best  work  was 
a  walking-stick,  with  a  carved  handle  of  coral  weighing  100 
grammes,  and  a  fine  string  of  pale  white  coral.  Some  of 
the  carving  and  workmanship  shown  by  Michele  Piscione 
and  others  were  very  fine.  Ascioni  Brothers  had  a  magni- 
ficent collection  of  works  in  pink  and  white  coral,  and 
especially  the  carved  hilt  of  a  dagger. 

At  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878,  in  the  Italian  section, 
magnificent  carvings  in  pink  coral  were  shown  by  Luigi 
Casalta,  Giacinto  Melillo,  Nicolo  Piscione,  Guiseppe 
Giojuzzi,  and  Rocco  Morabito,  of  Naples. 

The  value  of  ordinary  red  coral  fluctuates  much  at  the 
seat  of  the  fisheries.  In  1867  it  was  only  worth  305-.  the 
pound,  and  occasionally  it  is  worth  £2  the  pound.  The 
variation  in  price  arises  in  some  degree  from  the  different 


Co7'al  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  449 

qualities  of  the  coral,  but  also  from  special  circumstances 
which  the  markets  of  distant  countries  cause,  the  sale  of 
coral  being  much  smaller  in  Europe  than  elsewhere.  The 
fishermen,  however,  have  attained  to  a  degree  of  shrewd- 
ness and  overreaching  which  is  very  remarkable.  If,  for 
instance,  they  are  successful  in  finding  a  fine  branch  of  the 
coveted  pale  rose  coral,  they  will  not  dispose  of  it  alone, 
but  make  it  the  medium  for  getting  rid  of  their  whole 
stock,  covenanting  that  the  purchaser  shall  take  the  entire 
lot  for  some  fixed  sum.  The  purchase  of  coral  by  the 
dealer  becomes,  therefore,  quite  a  lottery  ;  for  until  the 
bark,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  is  removed,  he  knows  not 
what  is  the  condition  of  the  coral.  Much  of  it  may  be 
rotten  or  worm-eaten,  and  only  very  little  of  it  solid  and  of 
a  useful  character  for  working  up. 

The  most  ancient  seat  of  exploration  for  coral  was 
Sicily.  In  the  time  of  Cosmo  I.  of  Medici,  it  was  intro- 
duced by  this  prince  at  Pisa,  where  Sicilian  workmen  were 
located,  and  where,  up  to  the  present  day,  as  well  as  in 
Leghorn,  there  is  a  certain  trade  in  coral. 

Trapani  has,  however,  always  been  the  great  seat  of  art 
manufacture  in  coral,  and  some  masterly  pieces  of  work, 
mythological  and  religious  subjects,  have  been  turned  out 
there.  Indeed,  a  royal  coral  factory  was  established  and 
encouraged  at  Portici,  near  Naples,  by  Murat,  during  his 
sovereignty. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  St.  Albans  possesses  a  fine 
carved  head  in  coral,  evidently  of  Greek  workmanship, 
which  proves  that  this  material  for  artistic  purposes  is  of 
very  ancient  origin. 

The  value  of  the  coral  annually  obtained  from  Sardinia 
is  about  ^60,000,  which,  after  deducting  all  expenses, 
leaves  a  net  profit  of  ^^  13,000.     The  quantity  exported 

20 


450       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

ranges  from  200,000  to  250,000  lbs.  It  is  chiefly  found 
in  the  shallow  waters  near  Carloforte,  Alghero,  a  province 
situated  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  island  of  Maddalena.  At 
Alghero,  where  the  growth  of  coral  is  the  most  plentiful, 
about  190  vessels,  manned  by  1930  sailors,  are  employed 
in  the  fishery  from  March  till  October. 

This  industry  annually  acquires  larger  importance, 
and  the  fishing  is  prosecuted  with  increased  energy.  The 
greater  part  of  the  boats  employed  are  Italian,  and  they 
take  to  Genoa,  Leghorn,  and  Naples  their  produce,  which 
forms  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  trade  of  the 
peninsula. 

The  barks  sent  to  the  fishing  are  solid  and  well  adapted 
for  the  labour  ;  their  rig  is  a  great  lateen  sail  and  a  jib  or 
stay-sail.  The  stern  is  reserved  for  the  capstan,  the  fishers, 
and  the  crew.  The  fore  part  of  the  vessel  is  fitted  for  the 
requirements  of  the  patron  or  master. 

The  lines,  wood,  and  irons  employed  in  the  coral 
fisheries  are  called  the  engme.  It  consists  of  a  cross  of 
wood  formed  of  two  bars,  strongly  lashed  or  bolted 
together  at  their  centre  ;  below  this  a  great  stone  is 
attached  which  bears  the  lines,  arranged  in  the  form  of 
a  sack.  These  lines  have  great  meshes,  loosely  knotted 
together,  resembling  the  well-known  swab.  The  apparatus 
carries  30  of  these  sacks,  which  are  intended  to  grapple  all 
they  come  in  contact  with  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  They 
are  spread  out  in  all  directions  by  the  movement  of  the 
boat.  The  coral  is  known  to  attach  itself  to  the  summit  of 
a  rock  and  to  develop  itself,  forming  banks  there,  and  it  is 
to  these  rocks  that  the  swab  attaches  itself  so  as  to  tear  up 
the  precious  harvest.  Experience,  which  in  time  becomes 
almost  intuitive,  guides  the  Italian  fisher  in  discovering  the 
coral  banks.     The  craft  employed  in  the  great  fishery  have 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  45 1 

a  "  patron  "  or  captain,  the  bark  having  a  poop,  with  a  crew 
of  eight  or  ten  sailors ;  and,  in  the  season,  the  fishery  is 
continued  night  and  day. 

When  the  patron  thinks  that  he  has  reached  a  coral 
bank  he  throws  his  engine  overboard.  As  soon  as  the 
apparatus  is  attached,  the  speed  of  the  vessel  is  retarded, 
the  capstan  is  manned  by  six  or  eight  rren,  while  the 
others  guide  the  helm  or  trim  the  sails.  Two  forces  are 
thus  brought  to  act  upon  the  lines — the  horizontal  action  of 
the  vessel  and  the  vertical  action  of  the  capstan.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  many  inequalities  of  the  rocky  bottom,  the 
engine  advances  by  jerks  ;  the  vessel  yielding  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  concussion  caused  by  the  action  of  the 
capstan  or  sail.  The  engine  seizes  upon  the  rugged  rocks 
at  the  bottom  and  raises  them  to  let  them  fall  again.  In 
this  manner  the  swab,  floating  about,  penetrates  beneath 
the  rocks  where  the  coral  is  found,  and  is  hooked  on  to  it. 
To  fix  the  lines  upon  the  coral  and  bring  them  hom.e  is  a 
work  of  unheard-of  labour.  The  engine  long  resists  the 
most  energetic  and  repeated  efforts  of  the  crew,  who,  ex- 
posed almost  naked  to  the  burning  sun  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, work  the  capstan  to  which  the  cable  and  engine 
are  attached,  while  the  patron  urges  and  excites  them  to 
increased  exertion,  and  the  sailors  trim  the  sail  and 
sing,  with  a  slow  and  monotonous  tone,  a  song  the 
words  of  which  improvise  in  a  sort  of  psalmody  the  names 
of  the  saints  most  revered  among  the  seafaring  Italian 
population. 

The  lines  are  finally  brought  home,  tearing  and  breaking 
blocks  of  rocks,  sometimes  of  enormous  size,  which  are 
brought  on  board.  The  cross  is  now  placed  on  the  side  of 
the  vessel,  the  lines  are  arranged  on  the  deck,  and  the  crew 
occupy  themselves  in  collecting  the  results  of  their  labour. 


452       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  coral  is  gathered  together ;  the  branches  of  precious 
zoophyte  are  cleansed  and  divested  of  the  shells  and  other 
parasitic  products  which  accompany  them  ;  finally,  the 
produce  is  carried  to  and  sold  in  the  ports  of  Messina, 
Naples,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn,  where  the  workers  in  jewellery 
purchase  them. 

The  boats  employed  are  of  two  classes.  One  kind,  by 
far  the  most  numerous,  is  composed  of  vessels  of  from 
II  to  i6  tons  burden,  with  crews  of  12  to  14  men.  They 
are  all  fitted  out  at  Torre  del  Greco,  under  the  Italian  flag, 
and  fish  during  the  months  of  February  and  March.  The 
second  class  includes  craft  of  from  three  to  six  tons  burden, 
under  the  French  flag,  although  they  are  almost  entirely 
manned  by  Italian  seamen.  Their  crews  consist  of  five  or 
six  men,  and  they  continue  at  sea  most  part  of  the  year. 
The  boats  fish  on  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  Sardinia,  at  a 
distance  of  15  to  30  miles  from  shore,  only  returning  to 
port  in  case  of  urgent  necessity.  They  work  night  and 
day  without  intermission  ;  half  of  the  crew  relieve  the  other 
half  every  six  hours.  The  larger  class  of  vessels  is  fast 
superseding  the  small,  and  it  is  calculated  that  there  are 
now  about  200  of  the  larger  vessels  employed,  with  2400 
men.  The  seamen  receive  from  ;^20  to  ^24  each  per 
annum,  and  the  masters  about  twice  that  amount.  The 
entire  value  and  equipage  of  a  large  boat,  including  drag- 
nets, stores,  and  six  months'  wages,  may  be  estimated  at 
about  i^550.  Such  a  boat  may  probably  collect  from  650 
to  850  lbs.  of  coral  in  the  season. 

Hitherto  the  fishery  has  been  conducted  on  the  old 
primitive  method  of  the  drag-net  or  rough  dredge,  formed 
of  a  cross  of  wood  with  a  quantity  of  hemp  attached,  to 
tear  up  the  coral.  One  would  have  supposed,  with  the 
enhanced  value  which  coral  now  commands,  some  efforts 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  453 

would  have  been  made  to  improve  the  processes  for  pro- 
curing the  branches  from  the  sea  bottom. 

The  diving-bell  has  been  attempted  for  coral  fishing, 
but,  like  the  pearl  fisheries,  it  does  not  succeed.  An  Italian 
named  Foseli  has,  however,  been  lately  experimenting  with 
a  submarine  vessel  of  his  invention  intended  for  coral 
fishing.  It  was  tried  satisfactorily  at  Boza,  in  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  in  the  presence  of  leading  men  of  the  Italian 
naval,  scientific,  and  civil  service.  The  invention  consists 
of  wrought-iron  plates  divided  into  three  compartments, 
of  which  the  lowest  contains  looo  lbs.  of  ballast ;  the 
second  or  middle  chamber  is  prepared  to  accommodate  two 
persons  ;  the  third  or  uppermost  chamber  is  filled  with 
compressed  air.  This  compressed  air,  by  means  of  in- 
genious machinery,  is  capable  of  supplying  means  sufficient 
to  sustain  the  life  of  two  persons  for  50  hours.  At  one  of 
the  late  experiments,  this  vessel  descended  to  a  distance  of 
38  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  remained 
submerged  for  22|-  minutes,  without  the  slightest  discomfort 
being  experienced  by  the  navigators.  The  specific  gravity 
of  the  ballast  serves  to  retain  the  vessel  in  an  upright 
position,  and  peculiarly  simple  machinery  enables  it  to 
move  in  any  direction.  An  attached  illuminating  arrange- 
ment renders  objects  within  a  large  area  perfectly  visible. 
Other  varieties  of  the  machine,  for  sponge  and  pearl  fish- 
ing, requiring  a  deeper  descent,  are  designed  by  the 
inventor. 

The  Spanish  fishermen  collect,  off  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands,  about  24,760  lbs.  of  coral,  of  the  value  of  i^20,ooo. 

On  the  south  coast  of  Corsica,  coral  of  various  qualities 
is  found  in  large  quantities.  The  coral  fishery  is  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  Italians.  About  60  boats  are  employed 
annually ;  each  boat,  fishing  on  an  average  for  six  months, 


454       ^-^^  Cotnmercial  Proditcts  of  the  Sea. 

obtains  from  four  to  six  hundredweight  of  coral  in   the 
rough,  which  is  at  once  carried  over  to  Italy. 

Coral  is  found  in  more  or  less  abundance  along  the 
coast  of  the  Regency  of  Tunis,  Algiers,  and  the  shores  of 
Morocco.  The  French  Government,  between  1806  and 
1824,  made  repeated  attempts  to  renew  its  engagements 
with  Tunis  for  a  monopoly  of  the  coral  fishing,  but  it  was 
not  until  1852  that  France  obtained  the  exclusive  privilege 
over  the  coral  fisheries  in  the  Tunisian  waters  for  the 
annual  payment  of  ;^355- 

The  coral  found  on  the  Barbary  coast  is  principally  red, 
but  white  and  black,  as  well  as  the  much-prized  pink,  also 
exist.  The  latter  kind  is  most  frequently  obtained  on  the 
Galita  and  Fratelli  rock  banks.  There  are  about  90  coral 
fishing-boats  at  La  Calle  and  20  at  Bona,  chiefly  owned  by 
Italians,  three  or  four  only  being  the  property  of  IMaltese, 
who  reside  permanently  in  Algeria.  From  80  to  100 
vessels  fitted  out  at  Torre  del  Greco  arrive  yearly  at  the 
proper  season  at  La  Calle,  and  50  or  60  make  Biserta  their 
fishing  station.  The  coral  fishery  is  but  little  practised  by 
the  French,  although  a  few  boats  follow  this  industry  in  the 
Mediterranean  ;  several  of  them  use  the  diving  apparatus 
to  collect  the  coral.  The  exports  from  Algeria  are  valued 
annually  at  about  ;!^8o,ooo.  There  are  about  6000 
Italians  and  Spaniards  engaged  in  the  Algerian  fishery. 
The  French  sailors  do  not  like  the  hard  work  and  short 
food. 

On  the  Algerian  coast  the  number  of  boats  engaged 
in  this  fishery  has  averaged  of  late  years  about  300,  more 
than  two-thirds  of  which  are  Italian.  The  quantity  o, 
coral  obtained  it  is  difficult  to  state  precisely,  but  according 
to  the  declarations  of  the  fishermen  it  would  appear  to 
average  35,000  kilogrammes. 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  455 

The  coral  is  here  divided  on  arrival  into  several  cate- 
gories, of  which  the  following  are  the  principal  : — 

1.  Dead  or  rotten  coral.  In  this  class  is  included  the 
roots  adhering  to  the  rock  and  covered  with  stony  particles 
and  vegetable  encrustations.  The  value  ranges  from  5  to 
20  francs  the  kilogramme. 

2.  Black  coral.  This  kind,  with  a  polished  black  tint,  is 
employed  for  making  mourning  jewellery  ;  if  of  good  quality 
it  fetches  from  1 2  to  15  francs  the  kilogramme,  or  more. 

3.  Coral  in  case.  This  name  is  given  to  coral  which 
has  been  assorted  and  cleaned  when  taken  from  the  sea, 
and  consists  of  branches  of  all  sizes.  It  is  worth  from 
45  to  70  francs  the  kilogramme. 

4.  Choice  coral.  This  is  the  finest  selected  coral,  in 
large  branches,  which  the  fishermen  sell  separately  as  high 
as  400  or  500  francs  the  kilogramme,  according  as  the  stems 
are  more  or  less  straight,  and  of  handsome  appearance. 

The  expenses  and  returns  from  the  coral  fishery  in  this 
locality  are  thus  estimated  by  M.  Lacaze-Duthiers  :* — A 
large  boat  of  15  or  16  tons,  manned  by  12  men,  involves 
on  an  average  an  outlay  of  11,000  francs  for  a  season  of 
six  months.  A  boat  which  obtains  in  the  season  250  kilo- 
grammes of  coral,  at  50  francs,  covers  its  expenses.  A 
boat  which  obtains  300  kilogrammes  realizes,  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  coral,  a  profit  of  2000  to  3000  francs. 
The  fishery  with  the  diving-bell  is  much  more  advanta- 
geous. 

The  same  author  estimates  the  annual  yield  of  the  coral 
fishery  on  the  coasts  of  Algiers  and  Tunis  at  2,500,000 
francs,  and  the  value  of  the  produce  when  worked  up  at 
12,000,000  francs;    so  that  the  fishery,  the  working,  and 

*  "  Natural  History  of  Coral,"  i  vol.,  large  8vo.,  coloured  plates.  Paris, 
J.  Bailliere  and  Son.     1864. 


456       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

the  sale  of  coral  gives  employment  to  a  good  deal  of 
capital. 

A  year  or  two  ago  a  new  coral  reef  was  discovered  on 
the  coast  of  Palmi  in  Calabria,  and  the  local  sailors  fished 
up  a  large  quantity  of  rose-coloured  coral  of  good  quality, 
and  many  pieces  of  considerable  size  were  obtained.  The 
reputation  of  the  bank  soon  drew  the  attention  of  the  bold 
fishers  of  Torre  del  Greco,  and  three  boats  were  forthwith 
equipped  and  sent  there,  and  did  well. 

Imitations  of  coral  have  been  tried,  but  with  not  very 
great  success.  A  few  years  ago  coraline,  a  tolerably  cheap 
substitute,  was  very  common  for  beads,  bracelets,  etc.,  and 
might  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  the  Palais  Royal,  Paris, 
and  other  shops  where  cheap  jewellery  is  sold.  Although  it 
imitated  tolerably  well  the  rose-pink  coral,  yet  the  artificial 
beads  were  too  regular,  smooth,  and  uniform  to  pass 
muster  among  those  who  had  any  knowledge  of  the  true 
marine  product,  and  it  is  scarcely  seen  now.  Even  the 
natives  of  the  East,  who  are  thought  to  be  shrewd  and  well- 
informed  on  all  matters  of  gems  and  jewellery,  may  occa- 
sionally be  imposed  upon.  Strings  of  large  coral  beads 
of  uniform  size,  100  on  a  string,  are  in  great  demand  for 
chaplets  in  parts  of  Asia,  and  a  visit  was  once  paid  to  the 
shop  of  Messrs.  Phillips  by  a  number  of  distinguished 
foreigners,  who  admired  the  beauty  and  proportions  of  the 
chaplets  submitted  to  them,  but  expressed  unbounded 
astonishment  at  the  price  asked.  Not  long  after  their  de- 
parture they  came  back,  expressing  great  indignation  at 
the  imposition  attempted  to  be  practised  on  them,  declaring 
that  they  had  purchased  a  similar  article  for  one-tenth  or 
one-twelfth  the  price  asked,  and  they  exposed  numerous 
strings  of  coraline.  They  were  asked  to  put  the  two 
articles  to  the  test  with  a  knife,  and  the  true  coral  was,  of 


Coral  and  the  Coral  Fisheries.  457 

course,  unassailable,  while  the  artificial  composition  splin- 
tered and  broke.  The  result  was  an  appeal  to  the  police 
court  for  redress  for  the  fraud  that  had  been  practised  on 
them. 

Ivory  beads  are  sometimes  dyed  to  imitate  coral  ;  but 
this  seems  a  sad  waste  of  good  material,  the  natural  ivory 
being  preferable  to  the  tinted. 

A  coral  bank  of  superior  quality  was  discovered,  in  the 
middle  of  May,  1875,  by  a  Sicilian  fisherman,  in  the  waters 
of  Sciacca.  As  the  fishermen  there  were  not  familiar  with 
this  mode  of  fishing,  they  invited  the  fishermen  of  Torre  del 
Greco  and  of  tiie  port  of  Empedocle  to  come  over  and 
instruct  them,  at  the  same  time  offering  them  a  share  of  the 
profits.  Soon  all  the  boats  of  the  neighbouring  coasts 
arrived  at  the  bank,  which  caused  such  frays  that  the 
authorities  judged  it  necessary  to  station  a  man-of-war 
there. 

The  bank,  about  550  yards  in  length  in  the  direction  of 
west-south-west  by  east-north-east,  and  about  30  yards  in 
thickness,  yielded  at  first  rich  supplies  :  a  small  boat  with 
eight  men  collected  from  30  to  40  lbs.  of  coral  a  day  ;  the 
coral  sold  at  i  \s.  per  lb.,  less  five  per  cent,  tare,  so  that  each 
boat  showed  a  daily  gain  of  i^20.  But  the  bank  was  gradually 
exhausted,  and  the  coral  diminished  in  value  ;  by  the  15th 
of  July  it  had  fallen  to  Js.  per  lb.,  with  eight  per  cent,  tare, 
and  towards  the  end  it  did  not  sell  for  more  than  2s.  6d. 
per  lb.,  with  ten  per  cent.  tare.  It  was  estimated  that  from 
the  1st  of  June  to  the  31st  of  August,  1875,  the  quantity  of 
coral  fished  up  amounted  to  264,000  lbs.  The  coral  sold 
at  an  average  price  of  "js.  per  lb.,  therefore  the  total  fishery 
brought  in  ^^92,400. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  the  fisherman  who  discovered  the 
bank  only  received  the  small  sum  of  ;^io  as  reward,  and 


458       The  Commercial  Pi^odiicts  of  the  Sea. 

this  he  had  to  collect  halfpenny  by  halfpenny  from  the 
fishermen. 

Mr.  Herrics,  in  a  report  of  1868  on  the  industrial  con- 
dition of  Italy,  stated  that  there  were  then  365  boats 
employed  in  the  coral  fishery,  of  which  267  belonged  to 
Naples,  and  the  rest  to  Leghorn  and  other  places  on  the 
Genoese  coasts.  These  boats  employed  2699  men  and 
boys.  The  value  of  the  produce  ranged  from  ;^28o  to 
;^320  for  each  boat  during  the  season. 

About  160  tons  of  coral  are  annually  brought  into  Italy, 
and  the  articles  made  of  coral,  exported,  are  valued  at 
nearly  ^^"50)0,000. 

At  the  Maritime  Exhibition  held  at  Naples  in  1871,  the 
following  statistics  were  published  respecting  the  Italian 
coral  fishery : — 

No.  of  boats. 
Torre  del  Greco  ...  ...  ...     300 

Leghorn  ...  ...  ...  ...       60 

Liguria  and  Sardinia       ...  ...  ...     100 

460 

The  value  of  the  large  boats  was  £\(iO,  and  of  the 
smaller  ones  £%0\  the  collective  capital,  ^71,000.  There 
were  from  6  to  12  men  employed  in  each  boat,  making  a 
total  of  about  4000,  The  wages  paid  was  about  iJ^8o,ooo, 
and  the  provisions  came  to  half  as  much  more.  The  coral 
fishery  gave  employment  to  some  6000  persons.  Each 
boat,  in  order  to  defray  the  necessary  expenses  dis- 
bursed for  outfit,  provisions,  wages,  etc.,  ought  to  obtain 
200  kilogrammes  of  coral,  which,  at  an  average  of  £2  8j. 
the  kilogramme,  would  yield  .^480.  The  coral  received  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  stated  to  amount  to  160,000 
kilogrammes,  worth  about  ;^38o,ooo. 

The  shops  working  on  coral  were  stated  to  be — at  Torre 


Coital  and  the  Coral  Fisheries. 


459 


del  Greco,  24 ;  Leghorn,  1 5  ;  Genoa,  20.  Later  statistics 
make  the  boats  engaged  in  the  fishery  from  Torre  del 
Greco  329,  and  the  workshops  there,  40.  The  workmen 
employed  were  about  6000,  who  gained  ^200,000,  or  an 
average  of  a  little  more  than  35  francs  annually. 

There  were  239  boats  engaged  in  the  fishery  on  the 
Alghero  banks,  Italy,  in  1873,  and  159  in  1874.  The 
coral  obtained  was  as  follows  : — • 


Red  coral. 

White  coral. 

Total. 

Value. 

1873 
1874 

Kilogrammes. 
25,384 
12,260 

Kilogrammes. 
9536 
6758 

Kilogrammes. 
34,920 
20,018 

;^i6o,o8o 
93,960 

The  coral  fishery  of  Cagliari  gave  employment  in  1875 
to  180  boats,  and  the  produce  was  below  1,000,000  francs, 
against  2,350,000  francs  obtained  in  1874. 

The  manufactured  articles  sell,  of  course,  at  much  higher 
prices  than  when  in  the  rough  state,  so  that  coral  is  by 
no  means  an  inconsiderable  source  of  emolument  to  the 
Italians. 

Great  quantities,  when  manufactured,  are  expcrted  to 
India,  and  in  Leghorn  and  Genoa  several  establishments 
work  exclusively  for  that  distant  market,  where  blood-red 
coral,  the  colour  of  which  harmonizes  with  the  dark  com- 
plexions of  the  native  ladies,  is  particularly  in  demand. 
Coral  beads  of  a  large  size  are  in  high  estimation  through- 
out Hindostan,  and  are  usually  sold  for  their  weight  in 
silver.  Manufactured  coral  to  the  value  of  ,^208,000  was 
sent  from  Brindisi  to  Egypt  in  1873. 

The  following  return  furnishes  the  official  quantity  and 
value  of  the  imports  of  coral  and  coral  articles  into  the 


460       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

United  Kingdom  for  a  series  of  years.  The  returns  can- 
not be  carried  down  later  than  1870,  as  the  Board  of  Trade 
has  ceased  to  enumerate  coral  specially  : — 


Imports  of  Coral  into  the  United  Kingdom,  of  different  kinds, 
IN  pounds  weight. 


Year. 

Fragments. 

Whole. 

Negligees. 

Beads. 

Total. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1855 

2,172 

285 

I718 

— 

— 

1856 

13-270 

308 

2780 

— 

— 

1857 

28 

218 

1872 

— 

— 

1858 

645 

397 

1840 

— 

— 

1859 

1,255 

621 

2955 

— 

— 

i860 

338 

"34 

1633 

3568 

6,673 

1861 

15,639 

84 

602 

3654 

19,979 

1862 

1,458 

50 

1224 

1427 

4,169 

1863 

183 

318 

586 

1829 

2,916 

1864 

3,617 

758 

446 

3000 

7,821 

1865 

2,914 

391 

258 

994 

4,557 

1866 

4,439 

276 

232 

1385 

6,332 

1867 

7,539 

225 

"5 

2543 

10,422 

1868 

7,120 

262 

724 

4375 

12,481 

1869 

5,332 

786 

411 

1210 

— 

1S70 

1,600 

418 

652 

958 

— 

Computed  Net  Value  of  Coral  imported- 
Beads,  etc. 


■Rough,  Negligees, 


i860 

...    ;^3S,892 

I86I 

. 

".    33,403 

1862 

...     20,163 

1863 

22,657 

1864 

...    37,659 

1865 

...     13,970 

1866 

...     17,899 

1867 

.. 

...     29,487 

1868 

.. 

...      45,395 

1869 

. 

...       18,834 

1870 



14,878 

ake  the  v 

/eight  of  coral 

imported,  we  n 

Coral  ajtd  the  Coral  Fisheries. 


461 


fluctuations  in  the  annual  quantity  received.    The  following 
are  the  comparative  annual  figures  : — 


1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 

1859 
i860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 


lbs. 

4,17."; 
16,358 
2,118 
2,882 
4,831 
3,105 
16,385 
2,742 
1,087 
4,821 
3.563 
4.947 
7.879 
8,106 

6,529 
2,670 


The  Indian  trade  in  coral  in  1875  shows  a  very  slight 
decrease  on  that  of  1873-74,  when  it  amounted  to  £66,6^c)  ; 
but  it  is  slowly  recovering  from  the  depression  of  previous 
years,  that  depression  having,  it  is  believed,  been  partly 
caused  by  the  imposition  of  a  duty  of  'j\  per  cent,  in  April, 
1870.     The  value  of  the  imports  was  as  follows  : — 


1868-69 

;^93,I26 

1869-70 

65,285 

1870-71 

...       45.441 

1871-72 

54.894 

1872-73 

...       40,013 

1873-74 

66,689 

1874-75 

53.558 

Though  the  imposition  of  the  duty  probably  had  an 
immediate  effect  in  reducing  the  importations,  it  must  be 
remarked  that  the  trade  is  of  a  variable  and  fluctuating 
nature.  It  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  a  few  foreign  firms, 
from  whom  natives  purchase  the  coral  for  sale  in  the 
interior  at  great  fairs  and  religious  gatherings.    Coral  forms 


462       The  Commercial  Products  oj  the  Sea. 

a  favourite  adornment  for  native  children,  as  well  as  for 
adults,  in  certain  classes  of  the  population.  The  demand 
for  coral  depends  upon  the  out-turn  of  the  crops  of  the 
year.  After  an  abundant  harvest  rupees  will  be  freely 
exchanged  for  a  string  of  corals  to  be  added  to  those 
already  worn  as  a  necklace,  but  in  a  poor  year  the  coral 
merchant  will  find  his  stock  almost  unsaleable  at  any  price, 
and  his  next  importations  will  consequently  be  on  a  very 
reduced  scale. 

Coral  forms  a  large  item  of  the  Indian  exports  to 
Thibet.  The  preference  is  for  round  grains  pierced,  or  oval 
grains  with  the  ends  truncated  and  pierced  through  the 
length.  A  piece  as  large  as  a  pea  fetches  its  weight  in 
gold,  and  the  price  augments  with  the  size.  The  darkest 
colours  are  the  most  esteemed. 

In  China  coral  constitutes  an  important  article  of  trade. 
Various  sorts  are  imported  from  Singapore,  Sumatra,  and 
the  Samar  Islands.  Red  coral  is  termed  sJian-hii,  the 
white  variety  shih-hwa,  but  the  black  is  more  esteemed 
than  any  other  colour.  This  is  wrought  into  official 
buttons  and  beads,  the  inferior  kinds  being  made  into  ear 
and  finger  rings.  It  is  powdered  and  used  there  in  medi- 
cine and  in  ophthalmia.  Various  madrepores  and  polypes 
have  also  a  medicinal  reputation  in  China. 

A  bank  of  coral  of  great  richness  is  stated  to  have  been 
discovered  on  the  coasts  of  Japan.  The  coral  collected  is 
said  to  possess  this  peculiarity,  that  it  is  white  in  the  centre 
and  at  all  the  lateral  points,  which  are  numerous  on  the 
branches.  It  is  not,  however,  likely  to  prove  usefulfor  work- 
ing up,  as  it  appears  to  scale  or  break  off.  But  a  small 
quantity  has  yet  been  brought  up.  The  principal  fishery  was 
to  commence  shortly,  when  more  inform.ation  will  be 
obtained,  but  it  does  not  appear  likely  to  compete  with 
the  coral  fished  from  the  coasts  of  Italy  and  Sicily. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

AMRER   AND   THE  AMBER   FISHERIES. 

Source  of  amber — Chemical  composition  of  the  resin — Uses  and  application — 
Statistics  of  imports — Diving  and  fishing  for  amber — Prussian  coasts  of 
the  Baltic  the  chief  source  of  supply — Statistics  of  the  trade — Large  speci- 
mens found— Roumanian  amber. 

Having  dealt  with  tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  pearls, 
and  coral,  we  come  now  to  consider  a  product  of  a  some- 
what amphibious  character,  and  which,  unlike  those  already 
treated  of,  is  vegetable  in  its  origin.  Still  it  is  largely- 
dredged  and  fished  for  on  the  seashores,  and  as  the 
greater  part  is  obtained  from  the  sea,  it  properly  comes 
under  the  section  of  "  Marine  Contributions  to  Art." 

Amber  is  a  resinous  exudation  from  an  extinct  species 
of  conifer,  called  by  Goppert  Pinites  succinifer.  The  source 
of  amber  was  long  uncertain  ;  by  some  it  was  considered  a 
carbonaceous  mineral. 

Professor  Zaddach  shows  that  the  trees  which  yielded 
the  amber  must  have  grown  upon  the  greensand  beds  of 
the  cretaceous  period,  flourishing  luxuriantly  on  the  marshy 
coast  which  then  surrounded  the  great  continent  of 
Northern  Europe.  Probably  the  temperature  was  much 
higher  than  it  is  now;  and  this  even  at  that  epoch  ex- 
tended   to   the   now    frost-bound    Arctic    regions,   a   fact 


464       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

which  has  been  proved  by  the  remarkable  plant-remains  of 
temperate  climes  which  have  been  recently  discovered  there. 
The  amber  flora  of  the  Baltic  area  under  review  contains 
northern  forms  associated  with  plants  of  more  temperate 
zones  ;  thus  camphor-trees  {Cinnamomum)  occur  with 
willows,  birches,  beech,  and  numerous  oaks.  A  species  of 
Thuya,  very  similar  to  the  American  Thuya  occidcnialis,  is 
the  most  abundant  tree  amongst  the  conifers  ;  next  in 
abundance  Widdriugtonia,  a  great  variety  of  pines  and 
firs,  including  the  amber-pine.  Thousands  of  these,  it  is 
supposed  by  the  professor,  might  have  perished,  and  while 
the  wood  decayed,  the  resin  with  which  the  stem  and 
branches  were  loaded  might  have  been  accumulated  in 
large  quantities,  in  bogs  and  lakes,  in  the  soil  of  the  forest. 
If  the  coast  at  that  time  was  gradually  sinking,  the  sea 
would  cover  the  land,  and  in  due  course  carry  away  the 
amber  and  masses  of  vegetable  detritus  into  the  ocean, 
where  it  was  deposited  amidst  the  marine  animals  which 
inhabit  it.  But  in  higher  districts  the  amber-pine  would 
still  flourish,  and  so  amber  still  continues  to  be  washed 
into  the  sea  and  deposited  in  the  later  formed  greensand 
and  still  later  overlying  formation  of  the  brown  coal. 

Reboux  states  that  at  the  eocene  epoch  the  bed  of  the 
Baltic  Sea  was  occupied  by  an  immense  forest,  which 
spread  over  nearly  the  whole  northern  continent.  Dredg- 
ing carried  on  at  a  depth  of  64  feet  below  the  sea  bottom 
has  brought  to  light  thereby  two  species  of  conifers,  a 
poplar,  a  chestnut,  and  various  other  trees.  From  the 
conifers,  the  author  thinks,  ran  the  resin  which,  through 
being  buried  in  the  earth,  has  become  changed  into  amber. 
The  largest  quantity  of  the  gum  appears  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Pinus  succinus.  More  than  200  speci- 
mens of  objects  have  been  found   embedded  in  the  gum, 


Amber  and  the  A77iber  Fisheries.  465 

including    insects,   reptiles,    plants,    leaves,   grains,    shells, 
fruit,  etc. 

The  density  of  natural  amber  varies  from  roQ  to  rii. 
Its  analysis,  according  to  Schrotter,  is  :  Carbon,  78'82  ; 
hydrogen,  iO'23  ;  oxygen,  lO'QO. 

Amber  is  harder  than  most  resins,  and  is  susceptible  of 
a  good  polish.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  called 
"electrum,"  on  account  of  its  electrical  susceptibility;  it 
was  also  engraved  and  used  by  the  ancients  for  seals. 

It  occurs  abundantly  on  the  Prussian  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  from  Dantzic  to  Memel.  It  is  also  found  on  the 
coast  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  ;  in  Gallicia,  Poland, 
Moravia,  the  Ural ;  Switzerland,  near  Basle  ;  France,  near 
Paris  ;  near  London  ;  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
greensand  of  New  Jersey ;  also  in  Japan.  It  is  chiefly 
obtained  from  Prussia,  and  is  not  very  abundant  in  other 
countries. 

With  it  are  found  fragments  of  lignite,  and  it  frequently 
contains  insects  of  extinct  species  embedded  in  its  sub- 
stance ;  it  is  also  marked  with  the  impression  of  branches 
and  bark.  It  is  sometimes  thrown  up  in  great  quantities 
after  storms.  It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  two  resins  (soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether),  succinic  acid,  and  an  insoluble  bitu- 
minous substance. 

For  ages  amber  has  been  valued  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, such  as  necklaces,  bracelets,  brooches,  crosses,  ear- 
drops, silver  links,  and  the  like.  It  was  also  formerly  much 
used  for  inlaying  cabinets  and  ladies'  jewel-cases,  and  a 
large  picture  frame  inlaid  with  it  was  shown  at  the  Naples 
Maritime  Exhibition.  The  cloudy  or  milk-white  amber, 
not  that  which  is  clear,  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  The 
light-green  variety,  and  that  which  is  of  one  perfectly 
uniform   colour   throughout,  are  exceptions   to   this   rule. 


466       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

The  beauty  and  hardness  of  amber  have  caused  it  to  be 
long  esteemed  by  smokers  for  mouthpieces  of  pipes  and 
tubes  for  cigar-holders.  In  tlie  fine  and  extensive  collec- 
tion of  pipes,  etc.,  belonging  to  W.  Bragge,  Esq.,  shown  at 
the  London  Exhibition,  South  Kensington,  in  1872,  there 
were  some  very  large  amber  mouth-pieces  for  hookahs, 
both  clouded  and  clear  ;  also  in  the  case  of  Mr.  F.  Kapp, 
of  62,  Dean  Street,  Soho.  In  Turkey,  as  much  as  £'^00 
has  been  given  for  a  very  fine  mouthpiece.  I  recently  saw 
at  the  shop  of  Messrs.  Phillips,  Cockspur  Street,  a  magni- 
ficent pair  of  amber  tubes  or  mouth-pieces  attached  to 
hookahs. 

The  Turks  esteem  amber  for  mouthpieces,  in  the  belief 
that  no  infectious  disease  can  be  communicated  through 
it ;  the  Germans  now  prefer  it  for  its  rich  colour  and 
its  soft,  waxy  feeling  in  the  mouth.  Its  value  differs 
greatly,  according  to  its  tint  and  opacity,  and  herein  a 
novice  would  be  easily  deceived.  The  bright  yellow  trans- 
parent amber  is  least  valuable,  however  it  may  catch  the 
eye.  Dark,  nearly  opaque  yellow  has  a  much  higher  value, 
and  the  best  of  all  is  the  opaque  lemon-coloured.  Mr.  J.  J. 
Jeans,  the  British  vice-consul  at  Catania,  showed  at  the 
Dublin  International  Exhibition  in  1865  an  amber  neck- 
lace, consisting  of  21  large  flattened  beads  and  22  small 
ones.  The  ornament  was  of  considerable  mineralogical 
interest,  the  amber  being  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Simeto, 
a  little  river  watering  the  plain  of  Catania.  The  specimen 
showed  various  colours  of  this  rare  substance — bright  red, 
wine  red,  reddish  yellow,  and  bluish. 

According  to  recent  accounts,  one  of  the  Shah  of 
Persia's  most  esteemed  talismans  or  amulets  is  a  cube  of 
amber  reported  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  Mahomet's 
time.    It  is  worn  round  his  neck,  and  is  supposed  to  render 


A7nbe7'  and  the  Amber  Fisheries.  467 

him  invulnerable.  The  small  and  waste  pieces  of  amber 
form  the  base  of  an  excellent  varnish,  and  the  source  of 
succinic  acid.  The  trade  in  amber  to  this  country  would 
appear  to  be  largely  on  the  increase.  In  the  five  years 
ending  1853,  our  imports  of  rough  amber  averaged  about 
43  cwts.  ;  in  1867  they  reached  60  cwts.,  and  in  1870 
had  risen  to  329  cwts.  Besides  this,  we  import  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  manufactured  amber  in  beads,  mouthpieces, 
etc.  The  average  annual  value  of  the  amber,  as  declared 
in  the  last  six  years,  is  about  ;^2,400,  but  this  is  far  below 
its  real  value.  Amber  beads,  again,  are  mixed  with  the 
general  item  "  Beads  "  in  the  official  imports. 

Amber  often  contains  insects,  flies,  ants,  spiders,  etc., 
embedded  in  the  resin,  some  of  which  are  so  delicately 
formed  that  they  could  not  have  been  thus  enclosed  except 
in  a  fluid  mass,  such  as  a  volatile  oil  or  natural  balsam. 
They  occur  also  frequently  in  the  courbaril  resin  of  South 
America,  in  Indian  dammar  and  anime,  and  in  copal  from 
Accra,  West  Africa. 

Amber  is  found  in  primary  deposits  on  the  coast  of 
East  Prussia.  The  amber-bearing  stratum,  which  lies  partly 
below  the  sea  level,  partly  above,  is  a  bluish-green  colour, 
and  consists  of  a  coarse-grained  sand,  whose  particles  have 
a  yellow  coating.  In  this  blue  earth  is  found  the  amber  to 
the  amount  of  one  kilogramme  per  20  cubic  feet.  The 
pieces  of  amber  found  are  generally  weathered,  but  have 
retained  their  original  shape,  showing  that  the  sea  has  had 
but  little  action  on  them.  The  colour  is  far  from  constant, 
being  of  all  shades  of  yellow  and  brown. 

The  amber-dredging  establishment  at  Schwarzort,  on 
the  Curish  Haff  (near  to  Memel),  produces  about  80,000  to 
90,000  lbs.  of  amber  every  year,  and  is  still  in  the  hands  of 
a  Konigsberg  firm,  which  keeps  its  transactions  very  secret. 


468       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Four  steam-dredges  are  employed  for  the  collection  of  the 
amber,  as  well  as  a  considerable  number  of  dredges  worked 
by  hand.  The  amber  is  found  almost  uniformly  in  separate 
nodules,  with  lignite,  disseminated  in  the  sand,  at  a  depth 
of  from  10  to  12  feet.  The  dredging  is  carried  on  day  and 
night,  by  "shifts"  of  men,  working  eight  hours  each.  About 
400  persons  are  so  employed,  and  their  wages  are,  on  the 
average,  2s.  6d.  per  shift.  The  quantity  of  amber  collected 
is  considerable,  amounting  to  about  288  lbs.  per  shift,  and 
for  six  days'  work  51,184  lbs.  The  sand,  after  being 
dredged  up,  is  sent  on  shore,  where  it  is  washed,  in  order  to 
find  the  amber. 

The  method  of  obtaining  amber  from  its  ocean  place 
of  deposit  in  other  parts  is  much  on  the  principle  of  the 
ordinary  submarine  diving-dress.  A  woollen  garment 
covers  the  entire  body  of  the  diver.  This  is  again  encom- 
passed by  an  india-rubber  dress,  made  in  one  piece,  but 
differing  in  shape  from  the  old-fashioned  diving-dress,  and 
allowing  the  diver  to  lie  at  full  length.  The  helmet,  also, 
is  of  a  novel  construction.  Firmly  fastened  to  it,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  shoulders,  is  a  small  air-chest,  made  of  sheet- 
iron.  This  last  is  connected  with  the  air-pump  in  the  boat 
above  by  an  india-rubber  tubing,  40  feet  long,  and  with  the 
diver's  lungs  by  another  india-rubber  tube,  the  mouthpiece 
of  which  is  held  by  the  diver  between  his  teeth  ;  the  whole 
apparatus  being  scientifically  arranged  so  as  to  admit  a 
sufficient  supply  of  pure  air  from  above,  and  means  of  exit 
for  the  expired  breath.  The  helmet  is  provided  with  three 
openings,  covered  with  glass  and  protected  by  wire,  for  the 
use  of  the  eyes  and  mouth.  When  this  contrivance  has  been 
screwed  on  to  the  person  of  the  diver,  a  rope  tied  round  his 
waist,  and  half  a  hundred-weight  of  lead  attached  to  his  feet, 
shoulders,  and  helmet,  he  is  ready  for  his  plunge.     Down, 


Amber  and  the  Amber  Fisheries.  469 

fathoms  deep,  he  descends  into  the  amber  world.  He  stays 
there,  maybe,  for  five  hours  at  a  time,  hooking,  dragging, 
tearing  the  amber  from  its  bed  with  his  heavy  two-pronged 
fork.  Often  it  resists  his  utmost  efforts.  However  cold 
the  weather  may  be,  these  men  of  iron  strength  will  come 
up  from  their  submarine  labours  streaming  with  perspira- 
tion. The  overseer  stands  in  the  boat  to  receive  the  amber 
from  their  pockets.  In  case  he  should  wish  to  ascend 
before  the  usual  time,  the  diver  has  to  close  his  mouth  and 
breathe  five  or  six  times  through  his  nostrils,  by  this  means 
filling  the  apparatus  with  air,  which  will  bring  him  to  the 
surface  without  other  assistance. 

The  diving-boats  are  manned  by  eight  men  each — two 
divers,  two  pairs  of  men  who  work  the  air-pumps  alter- 
nately, with  their  eyes  fixed  on  a  dial-plate,  by  which  the 
supply  of  air  is  nicely  indicated,  one  man  to  hold  the 
safety-rope  attached  round  the  diver's  body,  and  haul  him 
at  the  slightest  sign  from  below,  and  the  overseer. 

At  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  1873,  some  interesting 
diving  apparatus  was  shown,  as  used  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Prussia,  for  obtaining  amber.  This  apparatus,  which 
received  a  gold  medal  at  the  Moscow  Exhibition  of  1872, 
is  constructed  on  the  system  of  MM.  Rouxquayrol-Denay- 
roux  ;  some  alterations  and  improvements  having,  however, 
been  introduced,  so  as  to  give  greater  safety.  The  air  is 
transmitted  to  the  diver  through  long  india-rubber  tubes, 
by  means  of  an  easily  transportable  air-pump,  with  two 
cylinders.  These  tubes,  which  are  strengthened  by  spiral 
wires,  conduct  the  air  to  a  regulator  carried  on  the  diver's 
back.  The  completely  air  and  water  tight  dress  of  the 
diver  is  connected  by  an  india-rubber  ring  with  a  copper 
helmet,  or  also  with  a  mask,  the  helmet  and  mask  being 
provided  with   strongly  grated   windows.      The  helmet  is 


470       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

used  for  works  under  water  in  which  the  head  of  the  diver 
has  to  be  kept  upright  (repairing  ships,  for  instance),  while 
the  mask  is  adopted  for  researches  and  examinations  on 
the  sea  bottom. 

A  great  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  diver 
has  always  a  certain  reserve  quantity  of  air  in  the  regulator, 
so  that  a  falling  off  in  the  supply  of  air  is  not  connected 
with  immediate  danger  or  disadvantages  for  him.  The 
supply  of  air  to  the  diver  is  regulated  by  a  peculiarly  con- 
structed valve,  by  means  of  which  the  pressure,  under  which 
the  air  is  supplied,  corresponds  always  with  the  depth  of 
the  water  in  which  the  diver  is  acting. 

The  air  coming  from  the  diver  is  not  allowed  to  mix 
with  the  fresh  supply  of  air,  but  escapes  to  the  surface 
through  a  side-port  closed  by  an  india-rubber  valve.  The 
diver  is  able  to  increase  or  diminish  his  specific  weight  by 
simply  altering  the  volume  of  air  between  his  dress  and 
body  ;  and,  in  this  manner,  it  is  in  his  power  to  ascend  or 
descend  as  he  likes. 

Amber  constitutes  an  important  article  of  trade  on  the 
Dantzic  coast,  and  it  is  exported,  both  in  pieces  and 
worked,  to  Austria,  France,  and  the  East.  This  trade  is 
completely  in  the  hands  of  a  few  families.  The  principal 
deposit  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Samland,  from  Pillau  to 
Gross  Hubnicken.  In  this  space  of  three  miles  the  ex- 
traction of  amber  is  farmed  by  the  Government.  The 
annual  yield  is  about  200,000  lbs.  The  produce  is  classed 
into  six  qualities,  according  to  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
pieces. 

The  largest  piece  known  is  13!  inches  long  by  eight  and 
a  half  inches  wide,  and  three  to  six  inches  thick.  It  weighs 
13I  lbs.,  and  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  At  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  185 1,  two  pieces  were  shown,  for  beauty  and 


Amber  and  the  Amber  Fisheries.  471 

size,  from  Konigsberg,  weighing  respectively  four  and  a 
half  and  six  pounds.  In  1854  a  bed  of  yellow  amber  of 
considerable  extent  was  discovered  at  Prague,  in  sinking 
a  well,  and  pieces  weighing  two  and  three  pounds  were 
extracted. 

The  trade  in  this  article  is  annually  increasing  in  im- 
portance, and  as  a  very  large  part  of  all  the  amber  appear- 
ing in  the  various  markets  of  the  world  is  supplied  by  the 
province  of  Prussia,  including  the  neighbouring  district  of 
Memel,  it  may  be  interesting  to  give  a  short  account  of  its 
appearance  in  that  part  of  Germany. 

Mr.  Ward,  the  British  vice-consul  at  Memel,  in  a  recent 
official  report,  furnishes  some  full  details  as  to  the  trade. 

In  the  western  portion  of  the  province  of  Prussia  amber 
is  found,  not  only  on  the  seashore,  but  also  in  the  moun- 
tainous ranges  of  the  interior.  Excepting,  however,  in  rare 
cases  of  its  appearance  in  so-called  "  nests,"  amber  is  only 
to  be  met  with  in  isolated  pieces  in  the  latter  localities,  so 
that  the  profit  arising  from  the  amber  diggings  amongst 
the  hills  is  but  a  very  moderate  one,  and  may  be  estimated 
at  about  double  the  amount  paid  by  the  proprietors  for  the 
wages  of  the  diggers.  In  East  Prussia,  however,  and 
especially  in  that  part  called  the  Samland,  amber  is  more 
abundant,  and,  during  the  prevalence  of  certain  winds,  is 
frequently  thrown  upon  the  shore  by  the  sea  in  large  quan- 
tities. It  is  collected  there  as  well  as  fished  for  in  the  surf, 
as  also  dug  out  of  the  sand  hillocks  running  along  the 
seacoast.  In  these  sand  hillocks  regular  beds  of  amber 
are  found  enclosed  in  a  soil  of  blue  clay,  which  is  to  be 
met  with  at  an  average  depth  of  about  100  feet,  in  a  thick- 
ness of  25  to  30  feet.  It  is  stated  that  out  of  some 
diggings  established  in  those  parts,  4500  lbs.  of  amber 
were  raised  in  the  course  of  four  months  of  the  year  1869. 


472       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Diggings  of  this  kind  exist  at  present  in  various  spots  of 
the  Samland,  more  especially  at  Wanzen,  Sassan,  Gros- 
kuhren,  Kleinkuhren,  Kraxtepellen,  Kreislacken,  and  Hub- 
nicken.  Besides  these  works  there  are  other  establishments 
at  Brusterort,  where  amber  is  obtained  by  divers  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  and  at  Schwarzort,  near  Memel,  where  it 
is  raised  by  dredging  for  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  Curish 
Haff.  Its  importance  and  size  have  of  late  years  increased 
considerably,  and  at  present  about  80,000  lbs.  of  amber  are 
annually  obtained  by  it. 

The  total  amount  of  amber  obtained  during  the  year 
1869  was  about  150,000  lbs.,  the  value  of  which  may 
be  taken  at  about  ;!f82,500.  The  quantity  collected  (by 
fishing  for  it)  in  the  sea  and  upon  the  shore  is  about  equal 
to  that  raised  by  the  digging  and  dredging  works.  Accord- 
ing to  the  opinion  of  competent  persons,  the  produce  of 
the  diggings  could  be  increased  considerably  by  working 
them  upon  a  regular  mining  system.  Apart  from  the  fact 
that  no  certain  knowledge  has  hitherto  been  arrived  at  as 
to  the  actual  extent  of  the  amber-fields  in  the  blue  clay — 
and  these  fields  exist,  most  probably,  not  only  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  seacoast,  but  also  in  the  interior  of  the 
Samland,  and  even  beyond  that  district  and  the  frontiers 
of  Eastern  Prussia — it  is  most  likely  that  below  the  stratum 
of  clay  to  which  the  diggings  are  at  present  confined,  there 
are  other  strata  in  which  amber  would  be  met  with.  This 
supposition  is  based  upon  the  circumstance  that  consider- 
able quantities  of  amber  have  been  found  amongst  the  soil 
washed  away  by  the  sea,  during  heavy  gales,  from  shore 
portions  of  the  coastal  sand-hills  which  lie  below  the  layer 
of  blue  clay  first  alluded  to. 

The  prices  of  the  principal  kinds  of  amber  are  stated  by 
an  official  report  to  be  about  as  follows : — 


Amber  and  the  Amber  Fisher 

ies. 

s. 

,i. 

I  lb.  of  9  pieces 

for  pipe 

nioutlipieces 

66 

0 

M       i8       „ 

>» 

45 

0 

„      40      „ 

>> 

30 

0 

„      60      „ 

>> 

19 

6 

,,     100      ,, 

,, 

12 

0 

,,    200      ,, 

,, 

9 

0 

„       30      ,. 

beads 

... 

30 

0 

M            60           „ 

,, 

... 

18 

0 

,,         100           ,, 

,, 

... 

12 

0 

473 


The  prices  of  larger  (so-called  cabinet)  pieces  are  sub- 
ject to  great  fluctuations,  and  are  fixed  by  the  increase  or 
decrease  of  demand  from  the  East  ;  and  the  prices  of  the 
commoner  kinds  seldom  vary  more  than  about  10  per 
cent. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  retail  amber  trade  is  Dantzic  ;  the 
wholesale  trade  is  at  present  in  the  hands  of  only  two  or 
three  firms  in  the  province  of  Prussia.  The  working  of  the 
Prussian  amber  into  mouthpieces,  beads,  etc.,  is  likewise 
carried  on  at  Dantzic,  but  also  in  other  large  cities. 

Amber  is  sent  chiefly  to  Vienna,  London,  Paris,  Moscow, 
and  New  York,  in  all  of  which  cities  the  Prussian  merchants 
keep  agents,  who  are  supplied  with  stocks  of  this  article, 
assorted  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  place.  Great 
progress  has  lately  been  made  with  regard  to  the  sorting 
of  the  various  kinds  of  amber.  There  are  now  no  less  than 
50  distinct  kinds,  difi"ering  in  size,  colour,  hardness,  and 
clearness.  It  is  owing  partly  to  this  circumstance,  and 
partly  to  the  growing  extent  of  the  demand,  that  an  in- 
crease in  the  sale  of  amber  continues  to  take  place.  The 
demand  from  South  Germany,  Russia,  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities, and  the  East  in  general,  as  compared  with  the 
comparatively  limited  amount  hitherto  obtainable,  will,  it  is 
thought,  prevent  any  increase  of  production  from  actmg  pre- 
judicially on  the  gross  profits  of  the  trade  in  this  article. 
21 


474       ^^^  Comme7xial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

Considering,  moreover,  the  almost  entire  absence  of  mineral 
products  in  this  part  of  Prussia,  and  the  importance  of 
opening  additional  channels  of  employment  for  the  inhab- 
itants, the  Konigsberg  Chamber  of  Commerce  strongly 
recommends  the  introduction  of  the  system  above  alluded 
to,  by  which  the  amber  diggings  might  be  extended,  and 
worked  upon  a  regular  mining  principle. 

Amber  is  found  in  beds  of  lignite  in  various  other  coun- 
tries, more  particularly  in  the  Adriatic,  on  the  Sicilian  shore. 

In  oriental  commerce  it  is  carried  into  India  from 
Japan,  the  Philippines,  and  Madagascar.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  false  amber,  or  copal,  is  imported  into  Canton 
annually,  the  imports  averaging  about  187  cwts.  per  quarter. 
The  greater  portion  comes  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 
Its  value  in  China  was  formerly  very  great  for  incense  and 
for  making  ornaments.  Transparent  yellow  pieces  are 
considered  the  best  by  the  Chinese  ;  but  the  colour  ranges 
from  black  and  yellow  through  red  and  white.  The  price 
in  the  East,  as  here,  varies  according  to  size  and  quality. 

In  Prussia  amber  is  divided  into  two  classes,  Fliesen 
and  the  Erd  Bernstein  ;  the  former  being  found  in  water 
and  the  latter  in  mines.  The  Erd  Bernstein  amber  is 
the  most  valuable,  being  hard  and  of  a  uniform  colour. 

Amber  is  manufactured  at  Trinley,  a  village  within  two 
miles  of  the  English  coast,  and  distant  ten  miles  from 
Ipswich.  It  is  there  made  into  crosses,  bracelets,  and  other 
personal  ornaments,  and  one  family  has  been  engaged  in 
it  for  the  last  30  years.  The  amber  is  procured  by  poor 
persons,  who  pick  it  up  after  wintry  storms  on  the  coast 
between  Landguard  Fort  and  Aldeburgh.  Mr.  J.  Wiggin, 
of  Ipswich,  has  a  piece  four  ounces  in  weight,  procured 
from  this  source,  and  has  also  purchased  many  pounds  of 
it  at  various  times. 


Amber  and  the  Amber  Fisheries.  475 

The  late  Mr.  D.  Alexander's  famous  piece,  said  to  be 
the  largest  in  England,  is  believed  to  have  been  picked  up 
in  the  same  locality.  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  has,  I 
believe,  a  very  fine  large  piece  of  amber. 

There  are  many  imitations  of  this  beautiful  resin,  but 
none  are  so  hard  and  enduring  as  the  genuine  article.  The 
uninformed  are,  however,  frequently  deceived  and  taken  in 
by  pieces  of  anime,  copal,  or  gum  kowrie. 

Mr.  Consul  Hertslet,  in  his  report  on  the  trade  of 
Konigsberg  for  1870,  stated  that  the  production  of  amber 
was  less  than  in  former  years — 1415  cwt,  against  1710  cwt. 
in  1869;  and  the  war  annihilated  the  trade  with  France 
for  raw  and  manufactured  amber.  A  demand  came  un- 
expectedly from  China,  but  soon  dropped  again. 

The  dredging  at  Schwarzort  brought  740  cwt.  ;  the 
diving  at  Brusterort,  300  cwt.  ;  the  diggings  in  Samland, 
55  cwt.;  the  fishing,  etc.,  along  the  coast,  320  cwt.  ;  total, 
141 5  cwt,  of  the  estimated  total  value  of  500,000  rix 
thalers. 

The  Prussian  Amber  Company  Limited,  Konigsberg, 
employs  2350  persons  and  19  steam-engines  in  this  trade, 
and  sold  in  1871  amber,  obtained  by  divers  and  dredging 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  to  the  value  of  ;^  5 3,000.  A 
diploma  of  honour  was  awarded  at  the  Vienna  Inter- 
national Exhibition  to  this  company  for  the  extent  of  its 
trade  and  the  excellence  of  its  amber. 

The  extent  of  the  amber-fields  in  Germany  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  22  dredges,  2  tug-boats,  100  barges, 
and  1000  labourers  are  engaged  in  the  industry.  The  area 
of  the  amber-field  is  extensive,  and  the  Government  derive 
from  it  a  yearly  rent  of  72,200  thalers. 

The  trade,  which  had  languished  in  1868  and  1869, 
regained   much  activity  in    1871.      England,    France,  and 


47^       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea, 

Austria  took  large  quantities  in  the  rough  state  to  be 
worked  up.  The  demands  of  Japan  and  China  were  also 
considerable,  and  the  clear  amber  sought  for  by  those 
countries  became  deficient,  notwithstanding  the  develop- 
ment given  to  the  extraction.  They  were  not  content  with 
collecting  amber  formerly  rejected  on  the  shore.  At 
Konigsberg,  pits  of  300  feet  depth  were  dug ;  500  work- 
men, steam-engines,  and  100  carts  were  engaged  in  the 
works.  In  other  localities,  divers  and  drags  were  employed. 
At  Munich  steam-engines  were  also  used  to  work  the  mud. 

The  production  of  amber  in  1874  amounted  to  363,000 
lbs.,  of  all  sizes  and  qualities,  which  was  sent  to  different 
parts  of  the  world. 

C.  A.  Wisephal,  manufacturer  of  articles  of  amber  at 
Stolf,  Pomerania,  showed  at  the  London  Exhibition  of 
1862  a  fine  set  of  opaque  amber  of  the  oriental  style  ; 
a  fine  set  of  cut  pale  transparent  amber ;  three  strings 
of  opaque  beads  for  African  trade,  one,  two,  and  three 
strings  to  the  pound  ;  100  strings,  assorted,  valued  at  ;^230  ; 
two  strings  of  transparent  beads,  eight  strings  going  to  the 
pound,  at  £■},  per  string  ;  19  other  strings  at  ijs.  the 
string  ;  specimens  of  cigar-holders,  pipe  mouthpieces,  etc., 
of  different  shapes  and  sizes  ;  also  transparent  cut  olive 
beads  and  transparent  smooth  beads. 

Mr.  F.  Nissi,  of  Dantzic,  showed  four  pieces  of  raw 
amber,  one  weighing  if  lb.,  priced  at  ^^13  ioj-.,  and  the 
others  priced  at  ^^13  los.,  £\2,  and  ^9  \^s. 

Mr.  H.  L.  Perlbach,  an  amber-bead  merchant  of  Dantzic, 
showed  a  rare  piece  of  amber  in  point  of  size,  form, 
and  colour,  three  inches  thick  and  14  inches  in  circum- 
ference, weighing  12  lbs.,  valued  at  ;^6oo,  and  two  pieces 
weighing  four  pounds  and  two  pounds  respectively.  The 
large  piece  was  found  in  an  amber  mine  in  the  village  of 
Gluckau,  near  Dantzic. 


Amber  and  the  Ajjiber  Fisheries.  477 

Amber  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  Sibicio,  situated  in 
the  valley  of  Bugeo,  Roumania.  This  amber  is  of  a  brown 
colour,  with  a  great  variety  of  shades,  passing  from  orange 
yellow  or  red  to  black,  with  green  tints.  It  is  extracted  in 
small  quantities,  and  large  pieces  are  rare.  It  is  used  for 
different  objects  of  marquetry,  the  mouthpieces  of  pipes, 
beads  for  necklaces,  and  other  small  articles  of  luxury. 
The  dust,  or  refuse,  is  used,  when  burned,  to  perfume  rooms, 
the  scent  being  very  fragrant. 

Roumanian  amber  differs  totally  from  the  German 
amber  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  Both  are 
the  fossil  resins  of  antediluvian  trees,  and  agree  in  chemical 
composition,  but  differ  in  colour.  German  amber  is  found 
only  of  light  colours  —  yellow,  white,  and  pink — while 
Roum.anian  amber  is  red,  pink,  brown,  blue,  green,  and 
black.  These  colours  are  frequently  found  mixed  in  a 
single  piece,  and  we  also  have  lumps  with  silver-coloured 
veins  and  gold  specks.  On  account  of  this  variety  of 
colours,  the  Roumanian  amber  is  highly  esteemed,  and  the 
darker  and  more  beautiful  pieces  are  more  costly  than 
yellow  amber,  especially  as  they  are  more  rare. 

German  amber  is  found  in  the  sea  or  in  alluvial  earth ;  the 
Roumanian  amber  is  only  found  in  mountainous  places  and 
highlands,  where  it  is  sought  and  dug  out  by  the  peasants. 
The  collection  of  amber  there  languishes,  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  is  never  conducted  in  a  rational  manner.  The 
peasants  being  ignorant,  and  led  only  by  instinct,  dig  here 
and  there,  wherever  they  guess  that  amber  is  to  be  found. 
Formerly,  this  amber  was  found  in  greater  quantities,  and 
also  in  much  larger  pieces  than  at  present.  If  the  search 
for  amber  and  its  collection  were  carried  on  in  a  scientific 
manner,  by  competent  judges,  it  would  prove  remunerative. 

North    Burmah  v/ould  seem  to  be  rich  in   deposits  of 


478       The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 

amber.  It  is  procured  in  its  rough  state  by  digging  holes 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  occasionally  40  feet  in 
depth.  The  mines  are  at  an  elevation  of  about  1050  feet, 
to  the  south-west  of  the  Mein  Khoom  plain  in  the  Hukong 
Valley.  Fifteen  to  20  feet  of  the  superficial  soil  is  clayey  and 
red,  the  remainder  consisting  of  a  greyish-black  carbo- 
naceous earth.  The  amber  is  made  into  Buddhist  rosaries, 
finger-rings,  pipe  mouthpieces,  etc.  The  dark  sherry- 
coloured  amber  is  most  highly  valued  there. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Agar-agar,  324,  325 

Alva,  uses  of,  313 

Amber,  description  of,  463 
beads,  467 

dredging  and  diving  for,  468 
in  Burmah,  478 
large  blocks  of,  470 
relative  prices  of,  473 
trade,  Dantzic  the  chief  seat 

of,  473 
two  classes  of,  474 
uses  of,  465 

Anchovies,  exports  from  Norway,  21 

Anchovy  fishery,  81 
French,  17 

Artificial  pearls,  266 

Abalones,  399 


B. 


Baccalau,another  name  for  klip-fish, 32 
Bahamas  sponge  fisheries,  174 

statistics  of  export,  177 
Balachong,  264 
Balolo,  126 
Basking  shark,  229 
Beadlemer  seal,  202 
Beche  de-mer,  106 
Beluga,  or  white  whale,  20S 
Benitiers  of  shells,  293 
Berried  hen,  definition  of,  94 
Black  coral,  440 

helmet  shell,  275 
Bladder-wrack,  313 
Bleaching  sponges,  177 


Blubber,  202,  205 
Boalee  fish,  257 
Boat  sponge,  175 
Bombay  pearl  shells,  377 
Bounty,  French,  on  fisheries,  4 
Brainstone  coral,  440 
Brazilian  isinglass,  250 
Bull's  mouth  shell,  273 
Bultow  fishing,  definition  of,  27 
Burtah,  definition  of,  243 
Byssus,  uses  of,  307 

of  pearl  oyster,  389 


Cameo-cutting,  273 
Capelin  fishery,  127 
Cape  lobster,  lor 

Colony,  fisheries  of,  15 
Carrageen  moss,  318 
Carry-way,  a  kind  of  boat,  223 
Cat-fish  oil,  216 

Caviare,  value  of  the  imports,  21 
Cephalopods  as  food,  116 
Ceylon,  imports  of  fish,  15 

pearl  fishery,  statistics  of,  409, 
410 
Chank  shells,  2S8 
China  fisheries,  16 
Chinese  isinglass,  253 
Chunam  or  shell  lime,  285 
Clam  shell,  281 
Clams,  varieties  of,  146 
Classing  and  value  of  pearls,  425 
Clovisses,  147 
Cockle  shells,  uses  of,  299 


48c 


Index. 


Codfish,  mode  of  catching,  by  hand- 
lines,  set  lines,  and  nets,  34 
process  of  curing,  29 
Cod    fisheries,    numljer     of    French 

vessels  employed  in,  39 
Cod    fishery,   French,    at    Newfound- 
land, 17 
Iceland,  17 
of  Ireland,  26 
of  Newfoundland,  26 
of     Scotland,     quantity 
cured,  25 
Cod -liver  oil,  213 

value  of  the  imports,  21 
Cod  oil,  213 

Cod  tongues  and  sounds,  31 
Combou  or  kombou,  329,  334 
Commercial    products,     variety     ob- 
tained from  the  sea,  I 
Conch  pearls,  408 
shells,  273 
Cones,  uses  of,  294 
Coral,  Algeria,  454 

beads,  442,  447,  456 
classification  of,  455 
commercial  varieties  of,  443 
composition  of,  438 
exports  from  Sardinia,  449 
imports  into  England,  446 
France,  445 
United  Kingdom, 
460 
Indian  trade  in,  461 
value  of  the  imports,  21 
Coral  fishery,  450 

boats  employed  in,  458 
Cornish  sardines,  64 
Cowries,  African  trade  in,  269 
as  currency,  279 
commercial  uses  of,  277 
value  of  the  imports,  21 
Crab-pots,  93 
Crabs,  how  sold,  93 

in  Norway,  lOI 
Crin  vegetal,  313 
Crustaceans,  90 

"  Crown  full,"  definition  of,  47 
Cummelmums,  264 
Cup-shaped  sponges,  168 
Cuttle-fish  dried,  116,  120 
bone,  121 


D. 

Diving-bells  for  sponge  fishing,  190 
Diving  for  pearls,  427 

for  pearl  shells  in  the  Pacific, 
386.  394 
Dog-fish  skins,  262 
Drift-nets,  49 
Dugong  oil,  209 
Dulse,  336 
Dun-fish,  31 

Dutch  herring  fishery,  54 
Dyes  from  the  mollusca,  303 


E. 

Ear-shells,  372,  398 
Egyptian  pearl  shells,  378 


Fish  as  food,  9 
bones,  257 

fresh-water,  sold  in  Paris,  18 
flour,  264 
guano,  154 
hooks  of  shell,  297 
inexhaustible  supply  of,  5 
maws,  eastern  trade  in,  256 
number  of  species  kno\\Ti,  3 

oils,    153,   212 

oil  soap,  224 

parts  of,  employed  in  arts  and 

manufactures,  2 
paste,  264 
products   and    their    uses,    257, 

264 
scales,  uses  of,  154 
skins,  uses  of,  153 
supply  to  London,  7 
value  of  imports  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  21 
Fish  skin,  applications  of,  259 

leather,  259 
Fisheries,  French,  17 
Irish,  12 

of  North  America,  13 
value  of  exports  of  British, 

II 
statistics  of  those  of  foreign 
countries,  21 


Index. 


481 


Fishery  products,  imports  of,  in  1870, 
21 

Frencli  fisheries,  value  of,  1 7 
herring  fishery,  57 
fishery,  boats  employed,  18 

Fur  seal,  203 


G. 

Gall  of  the  carp  used  as  a  dye,  152 

Galuchat,  263 

Garoon  shell,  286 

Garuni,  265 

Gelose,    or    seaweed    isinglass,    324, 

327,  328,  335 
Gilbackre  isinglass,  251 
Glove  sponge,  159 
Green  snail  shell  of  commerce,  293, 

399 
Grotto  shells,  299 
Guanine,  266 


H. 

Make,  251 

Halibut,  128 

Hard  head  sponge,  175 

Hard-shell  clam,  146 

Harp  seal,  202 

Helmet  shells,  273 

Herring  brands,  definitions  of,  47 

fishery  of  France,  56 

of  Holland,  54 

of  Norfolk,  47 

of  North  America,  58 

of  Norway,  58 

of  Scotland,  43 

oil,  218 
Herrings,  exports  from  Norway,  21 
statistics  of  cure  and  export 

from  Scotland,  46 
weight  of,  sent  per  Great 
Eastern,  5 1 
Hood  seal,  202 


I. 


Iceland  fisheries,  36,  38 

Imports  of  the  fisheries,  statistics  of,  il 

Indian  fish  oils,  216 


Indian  isinglass,  243 
Iodine,  313 

Isinglass,  description  and  preparation 
of,  238 
value  of  our  imports,  21 


J. 


Japan  seaweeds,  329 
Ju-ka,  254 

K. 

Kabiljauw,  256 
Kelp  weed,  322 
Keratosa,  160 
King-crab,  90 
Kippered  herrings,  51 
Klipfish    (dried    cod),    exports  from 
Norway,  21 

L. 

Last  of  herrings,  definition  of,  52 
Laver,  336 

Leather  from  fish  skins,  153 
Lobster  canning,  or  tins,  96 
pots,  97 

spawn,  use  of,  94 
fishery  in  Norway,  99 
of  America,  95 
Lobsters,  curious  names  for,  92 
British,  91 

exports  from  Norway,  21 
statistics    of    exports    from 
Norway,  100 
Lofoden  fisheries,  36 
London,  fish  supply  to,  7,  lO 
Louar  oil,  217 

M. 

Maara  shells,'  387 
Machorian  isinglass,  251 
Mackerel,    commeixial    classification 
of,  72 

fishery,  British,  67 

French,  17,  68 

North  American,  69 

Norway,  68 


482 


Index. 


Madiagwe,  definition  of,  89 
Madrepore  for  paving  and  building, 

152 

Manatus,  209 

Manila  pearl  shells,  378,  385 
Marine  salt,  339 
silk,  306 
Matanza,  definition  of,  86 
Maties,  definition  of,  47 
Medicinal  uses  of  shells,  302,  303 
Menhaden  fish  preserved  in  oil,  81 

oil,  221 
Moss-bunker,  or  menhaden,  81 
Mother-of-pearl,    applications   of,    in 
China,  397 
articles  made  of,  37 ^ 
British  imports,  3S2 
Mother-of-pearl     shells,     commercial 
varieties  of,  377 
from   Western    Aus- 
tralia, 395 
value  of  our  imports, 
21 
Mussel  fishery  of  France,  i8 
shells,  uses  of,  298 


N. 


Nautilus  shells,  296,  301 

Nets,  size  and  kind  of,  49 

Newfoundland  cod  fishery,  26 

Norfolk  herring  fishery,  48 

North  American  fisheries,  13,  14 

herring  fishery,  58 
isinglass,  251 

Norway  cod  fishery,  32 

herring  fishery,  58 

Nuoc-mam,  265 

o. 

Octopods,  117 
Oils,  fish,  153 

from  marine  mammals,   198 
Opercula,  uses  of,  302 
Orchella  weed,  value  of  the  imports,  21 
Organ-pipe  coral,  440 
Ormer  shell,  39S 
Ottoman  sponge  fishery,  183 
Oolachan  oil,  154,  219 
Oyster  fisheries,  American,  139 
British,  131 


Oyster  fisheries  of  France,   18,    135, 

138 
Oysters  of  Australia,  144 


Painter's  mussel,  269 
Paires  doubles,  147 
Palolo,  121 

Panama  pearl  fishery,  420 
pearl  shells,  378 
Papier-mache  work,  381,  40O 
Paris,  consumption  of  fish  in,  19 

of  oysters  in,  135 
Pearl  buttons,  372 
Pearl  fisheries,  402 

of  Western  Australia, 

427. 
of  Persian  Gulf,  418 
of  Ceylon,  409 
of  Panama,  420 
Pearl  inlaying,  38 1 

mussel,  Chinese,  411 
Pearls,  commerce  in,  in  England,  403 
classification  of,  417 
imported  into  France,  418 
from  Labuan,  424 
from  Pacific  Islands,  424 
quantities  of,  405 
used  by  the  North  American 

Indians,  420 
value  of  the  imports,  21,  418 
various  colours  of,  405 
Pilchard  fishery,  60 
Pilchards  cured  in  oil  as  sardines,  64 
statistics  of  catch  and   ex- 
ports, 63 
Pilgrim  shells,  398 
Pink  pearls,  408 
Piracuru  fish,  250 
Poggies,  a  kind  of  fsh  bait,  71 
Polypi,  117 
Pomfret,  130 
Porgy,  a  name  for  the  menhaden  fish, 

221 
Porpoise  oil,  208 
Prussian  amber,  465 


Queen  conch  shell,  273,  293 


Index. 


483 


R. 

Rau-cau,  325 

Ray  skin,  262 

Razor  clam,  146 

Reef  or  fine  toilet  sponge,  175 

Ribbon  isinglass,  251 

River  pearls,  428 

Rouen  oil,  154 

Roumanian  amber,  477 

Round  clam,  146 

Russian  isinglass,  24I 


Saddle  Rock  oyster,  142 
Salmon,    aggregate   value  of    British 
and  Irish  fisheries,  74 
as  food,  6 

in  British  Columbia,  76 
statistics  of  London  sales,  74 
Salmon  fishery,  73 

in  New  Brunswick,  75 
in  Norway,  75 
Salt  in  Australia,  348 
in  Austria,  344 
in  California,  344 
in  Cochin  China,  347 
in  India,  346 
in  Portugal,  345 
in  the  United  States,  344 
manufacture  in  France,  339 
Sandre  oil,  215 
Sankka  or  shell  bracelet,  291 
Sardine  fishery  of  France,  17,  77 

oil,  217 
Sardines,  American,  8r 

used  as  manure  in  Japan,  8 1 
Sawfish,  oil  from,  2it) 
Scabeccio,  definition  of,  87 
Scales  of  fish,  uses  of,  258 
Scallop  shells,  uses  of,  298 
Scotch  pearls,  429 
Seal  fishery,  199 

oil,  200 
Seal  skins,  202 

exported  from  Norway,  21 
value  of  the  imports,  21 
Sea-urchins,  121 
Seaweed  and  its  uses,  311 

collection  of,  in  France,  317 
in  Japan,  317 


Seaweed  for  manure,  314 

as  food,  321 
Seer  fish,  130 
Seine  nets,  ()2 
Sephen  skin,  262 
Sepia,  303 

Shad  fishery  in  North  America,  60 
Shagreen,  263 
Shank  or  chank  shell,  2S9 
Shark  skin,  261 
Shark  fins,  235,  237 

fishery,  226 
Sharks,  varieties  of,  226 
Sheep-wool  sponge,  176 
Shell  bangles  or  bracelets,  2SS 
cameos,  274 
fish-hooks,  297 
sand,  2S5 
Shells  as  currency,  278,  281 
calcined,  270 
composition  of,  268 
domestic  uses  of,  297 
sales  of,  in  London,  271 
useful  applications  of,  270 
value  of  British  imports,  287 
Shrimp  fishery,  English,  102 
Shrimps,  dried,  trade  in,  104 
Silicious  sponges,  194 
Singapore,  imports  of  fish,  15 
Slips,  a  name  for  soles,  129 
Snoods,  definition  of,  27 
Soles,  129 

South  Sea  pearl  shells,  377 
Spent  fish,  definition  of,  47 
Spermaceti  or  head  matter,  205 
Sponge,  chemical  analysis  of,  17S 
descriptions  of,  155 
fishery  of  Tunis,  190 
for  stuffing  beds,  178 
value  of  imports,  21 
Sponge  fisheries,  American,  170 

of  the  Bahamas,  1 74 
Sponges,  commercial  grades  of,  159 
cultivation  of,  182 
French  classification  of,  193 
imports  of,  from  the  Mediter 

ranean,  192 
scientific  divisions  of,  156 
of  the  Mediterranean,  183 
Soft  clam,  146 
Spring  herrings,  52 
Squids  for  fish  bait,  120 
Stockfish  or  round-fish,  32 


484 


Index. 


Sturgeon,  240,  253 
Suleah  fish,  243 
Sulu  pearl  shells,  377 
Swordfish,  118 


T. 


Tangle,  336 

Tiger  cowry,  279 

Tinned  lobsters,  96 

Tongues,  a  name  for  soles,  1 29 

Tortoiseshell  boats,  360 
combs,  358 
British  imports,  363 
description  of,  351 
imports  into  France,  364 
manufacture,  354 
value  of  the  imports,  21 

Train  oil  and  blubber,  205 

exported  from  Norway,  21 

Trawlers,  number  of,  in  the  British 
seas,  8 

Tree  oysters,  421 

Trepang  fishery,  105 

mode  of  curing,  1 1 2 
varieties  of,  107,  loS,  II4 

Trumpet  shells,  2S0,  299 

Turbo  shells,  300 

Turk's  cap  shell,  294,  400 


Tunny  fishery,  83 
oil,  85,  218 
Turbot,  130 
Turtle,  edible  or  green, 


3^ 


Turtle  eggs,  368 

modes  of  cooking,  366 
Tuticorin  pearl  fishery,  413 
Tyrian  purple,  304 

V. 

Velvet  sponge,  175 
Venetian  shells,  277 
Vesiga,  definition  of,  242 
Vog,  definition  of,  36 

w. 

Walrus,  204 

Wampum,  28 1 

Whalebone  or  fins,  imports  of,  206 

Whale  fishery,  204 

or  train  oil,  value  of  imports, 
21 
Western  Australian  pear!  fisheries,  427 
West  Indian  isinglass,  251 
Wool  sponge,  159 


THE    FRENCH 

Revolutionary  Epoch. 

Being  a  History  of  France  from  the  Beginning  of  the  First  French 
Revolution  to  the  End  of  the  Second  Empire. 


HENRI  VAN  LAUN, 

Author  of  "History  of  French  Literature,"  etc. 


In  2  vols.,  12mo ,       ,      Cloth,  $3.50. 


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NEW  LANDS  WITHIN  THE  ARCTIC  CIRCLE : 

NARRATIVE  OF  THE  DISCOVERIES  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  SHIP 
TEGETTHOFF  IN  li^2-•^^. 

By    JXJLIXJS    F^^YER, 

ONE  OP  THE  COMMANDERS  OF  THE  EXPEDITION. 

Containing  upward  of  One  Hundred  Illustrations  from  Drawings  by 

the  Author,  engraved  by  J.  D.  Cooper,  a  Colored  Frontispiece 

and  Route  Maps,  and  Preface  comparing  the  Results 

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Appletons'  Fifth  Reader 460     " 


These  Readers,  while  avoiding  extremes  and  one-sided  tendencies,  combine 
Into  one  harmonious  whole  the  several  results  desirable  to  be  attained  in  a  seriet» 
of  school  reading-books.  These  include  good  pictorial  illustrations,  a  combina- 
tion of  the  word  and  phonic  methods,  careful  grading,  drill  on  the  peculiar  com- 
binations of  letters  that  represent  vowel-sounds,  correct  spelling,  exercises  well 
arranged  for  the  pupil's  preparation  by  himself  (so  that  he  shall  learn  the  great 
lessons  of  self-help,  self-dependence,  the  habit  of  application),  exercises  thai 
develop  a  practical  command  of  correct  forms  of  expression,  good  literary  taste, 
close  critical  power  of  thought,  and  ability  to  interpret  the  entire  meaning  o( 
the  language  of  others. 

The  high  rank  which  the  authors  have  attained  in  the  educational  field  and 
their  long  and  successful  experience  in  practical  school-work  especially  fit  them 
for  the  preparation  of  text-books  that  embody  all  the  best  elements  of  modem 
educative  ideas.  In  the  schools  of  St.  Louis  and  Cleveland,  over  which  two  of 
them  have  long  presided,  the  subject  of  reading  has  received  more  than  usual 
attention,  and  with  results  that  have  established  for  them  a  wide  reputation  for 
enperior  elocutionary  discipline  and  accomplishments. 

Of  Prof.  Bailey,  Instructor  of  Elocution  in  Yale  College,  it  is  needless  to 
speak,  for  he  is  known  throughout  the  Union  as  being  without  a  peer  in  his  pro- 
ft:s8ion.    His  methods  make  natural,  not  mechanical  readers. 

D.  APPLE  TON  &^  CO.,  Publishers, 

549  &  551  Broaitwat,  New  York. 


INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES. 


l^SOW     READY. 


I.  FORMS  OF  WATEE,  in  Clouds,  Eain,  Kivers,  Ice,  and  Glaciers.     By  Prof. 

John  Ttndai.l.    1  vol.    Cloth.    Price,  $1.50. 
II.  PHYSICS   AND  POLITICS;  or,  Thoughts  on  the  Application  of  the  Prin- 
ciples of  "Natural  Selection "  and  "Inheritance"  to  Political  Society.     By 
Walter  Baoehot.    1vol.    Cloth.     Price,  $1.50. 

III.  FOODS.      By  Edward    Smith,   M.  D.,   LL.  B.,   F.  E.  S.      1  vol.      Cloth. 

i*rice  ^1.75. 

IV.  MIND  AND  BODY.      The  Theories  of  their  Eelations.     By  Alexander 

Bai.s,  LL.D.    1  vol.,  12nio.     Cloth.     Price,  $1.50. 
V.  THE  STUDY  OF  SOCIOLOGY.     By  Herbert  Spencer.    Price,  $1.50. 
VI.  THE  NEW   CHEMISTKY.     By  Prof  Josiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr.,  of  Harvard 

University.    1  vol.,  12mo.     Cloth.     Price,  $2.00. 
VII.  THE    CON'SEEVATION    OF    ENERGY'.      By  Prof.  Balfour  Stewart, 
LL.  D.,  F.  R.S.    1  vol.,  12mo.     Cloth.     Price,  $1.50. 
VIII.  ANIMAL  LOCOMOTION ;   or.  Walking,  Swimming,  and  Flying,  with  a  Dis- 
sertation on  Aeronautics.     By  J.  Bell  Pettigrew,  M.  D.     1  vol.,  12mo. 
Illustrated.     Price,  $1.75. 
IX.  RESPONSIBILITY    IN    MENTAL    DISEASE.      By  Henry  Macdslet, 
M.D.    1  vol.,  12mo.    Cloth.     Price,  $1.50. 
X.  THE    SCIENCE    OF   LAW.      By   Prof.   Sheldon  Amos.      1  vol.,  12mo. 

Cloth.    Price,  $1.76. 
XI.  ANIMAL  MECHANISM.     A  Treatise  on  Terrestrial  and  Aerial  Locomotion. 
By  E.  J.  Marey.    With  117  Illustrations.    Price.  $1.75. 
XII.  THK   HISTORY   OF  THE    CONFLICT   BETWEEN   RELIGION   AND 
SCIENCE.     By  John  Wm.  Draper,  M.D.,  LL.  D.,  author  of  "The  Intel- 
lectual Development  of  Europe."'     Price,  $1.75. 

XIII.  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  DESCENT,  AND  DARWINISM.     By  Prof.  Oscar 

Schmidt,  Strasburg  University.     Price,  $1.50. 

XIV.  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  LIGHT  AND  PHOTOGRAPHY:  In  its  Applica 

tion  to  Art,  Science,  and  Industry.    By  Dr.  Hermann  Vogel.    100  Illustra- 
tions.   Price,  $2.00. 
XV.  FUNGI ;   their  Nature,  Influence,  and  Uses.    By  M.  C.  Cooke,  M.  A.,  LL.  D, 
Edited  by  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  M.A.,  F.L.S.     With  109  Illustrations, 
Price,  $1..50. 
XVI.  THE  LIFE  A2JD  GROWTH   OF   LANGUAGE.    By  Prof  W.  D.  Whit 

KEY,  of  Yale  College.    Price,  $1.50. 
XVII.  MONEY   AND  THE  MECHANISM   OF  EXCHANGE.    By  W.Stanley 

Jevons.  M.  a.,  F.  R.  S.     Price,  $1.75. 
XVIII.  THE  NATURE  OF  LIGHT,  with  a  General  Account  of  Physical  Optics.    By 
Dr.  Kugene  Lommel,  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Erlangen. 
With  88  Illustrations  and  a  Plate  of  Spectra  in  Chromo-hthography.    Price, 
$2.00. 
■     XIX.  ANIMAL  PARASITES  AND  MESSMATES.    By  Monsieur  Van  Beneden. 
Profes-^or  of  the  Universitv  of  Louvain.    With  S3  Illustrations.    Price,  $1.50. 
XX.  ON  FERMENTATIONS.  "By  P.  SoniiTZEN-BEROEU,  Director  at  the  Chemical 
Laboratory  at  the  Sorbonne.     With  28  Illustrations.     Price,  $1.50. 
XXI.  THE  FIVE  SENSES  OF  MAN.     Bv  Jitluts  Bernstein,  O.  O.  Professor  of 
Physiology  in  the  Universitv  of  H.ilie.    With  01  Illustrations.     Price.  $1.75. 
XXII.  THE  THEORY  OF  SOUND  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MUSIC.    By  Prof. 
Pietro  Blaseena,  of  the  Royal  University  of  Rome.      With  numerous 
Woodcuts.    1  vol.,  12mo.    Cloth.     Price,  .'(;1."50. 
XXIIL  STUDIES    IN    SPECTRUM    ANALYSIS.       By  J.    Norman    Lockyer. 

With  Illustrations.    1  vol.,  12mo.    Cloth.    Price,  $2.50. 
XXIV.  A   HISTORY   OF    THE    GROWTH   OF   THE    STEAM-ENGINE.      By 
Robert  H.  Thitrston,  A.  M.,  C.  E.,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering  in 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  New  Jersey,  etc.,  etc.    With 
163  Illustrations.    1  vol.,  12mo.    Cloth.    Price,  $2.50. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers,  549  &  551  Broadway,  New  York- 


INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES. 


VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION. 

THE  SUN.     By  Prof.  Young,  of  Princeton  College.    With  numerous  Illustrations 

CHROMATICS.  From  the  Modern  Point  of  View.  By  Prof.  O.  N.  Rood,  of 
Columbia  College. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  LOGIC  OF  SCIENCE.  By  Charles  S, 
Peirce. 

SREAD  :  The  Theory  and  Science  of  its  Production.     By  Prof.  E.  N.  Horsford. 

THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  EXACT  SCIENCES  EX- 
PLAINED TO  THE  NON-MATHEMATICAL.  By  Prof.  W.  Kingdom 
Clifford.     {[>t  press.) 

THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  SEA.  Bv  W.  B.  Car- 
penter, LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

THE  BRAIN  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS.  By  J.  Luys,  Physician  to  the 
Hospice  de  la  Salpetriere      With  Illustrations.     (In  press.) 

THE  BRAIN  AS  AN  ORGAN  OF  MIND.  By  H.  Charlton  Bastian, 
]\I.  D.,  F.  R.  S.      (In  press.) 

THE  STARS.    By  the  Rev.  A.  Secchi,  late  Director  of  the  Observatory  at  Rome. 

(/«  press.) 

GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MUSCLES  AND  NERVES.     By 

Prof.  J.  Rosenthal,  of  the  University  of  Erlangen. 

THE  HUMAN  RACE.     By  Prof.  A.  ue  Quatrefages,  Membre  de  I'Institut 

PSYCHOMETRY.     By  Francis  Galton,  F.R.  S. 

THE  LAWS  OF  VOLCANIC  ACTION.    By  J.  W.  Judd,.  F.  R.  S. 

THE  EMBRYONIC  PHASES  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE.     By  Prof.  F.  N. 

Balfour. 

THE  CRAYFISH:  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology.  By  T.  H.  Hux- 
ley, V.  R.  S. 

ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  CONDITIONS  OF  EXISTENCE.     By 

JJr.  Carl  Semper. 

ATOMS  AND  THE  ATOMIC  THEORY.    By  Prof.  Wurtz. 

ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE.     By  George  J.  Romannes,  F.  L.  S. 

A  MANUAL  OF  CRYPTOGAMIC  BOTANY.  By  Alfred  W.  Ben- 
nett,  F.  L.  S. 

ON  ANTS  AND  BEES.     By  Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart.,  F.  R.  S. 

FORM  AND  HABIT  IN  FLOWERING  PLANTS.  By  Prof.  W.  T. 
Thiselton  Dyer,  B.  A.,  B.  Sc. 

PROTOPLASM  AND  THE  CELL  THEORY.  By  Prof.  Michael 
Foster,  AI.  D. 

EARTH-SCULPTURE:  Hills,  Valleys,  Mountains,  Plains,  Rivers,  Lakes; 
how  they  were  Produced,  and  how  they  have  been  Destroyed.  By  Prof.  .A.  C. 
Ramsay,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

FORMS  OF  LIFE  AND  OTHER  COSMICAL  CONDITIONS.     By 

P.  Bekt,  Profess :)r  of  Physiology,  Paris. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers,  549  &  551  Broadway,  New  York. 


WOEKS  OF  RICHAED  ANTHONY  PEOCTOE. 


OTHER  WORLDS  THAN  OURS:  The  Plurality  of  Worlds,  studied 
under  the  Light  of  Recent  Scientific  Researches.  With  Hlustrations, 
some  colored.     12mo.     Cloth.     Price,  $2.50. 

LIGHT  SCIENCE  FOR  LEISURE  HOURS.  A  Series  of  Familiar 
Essays  on  Scientific  Subjects,  Natural  Phenomeua,  etc.  1  vol., 
12mo.     Cloth.     Price,  $1.76. 

ESSAYS  ON  ASTRONOMY.  A  Series  of  Papers  on  Planets  and  Mete- 
ors, the  Sun,  Stars,  etc.  With  10  Plates  and  24  Wood  Engravings. 
1  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     Price,  $4.50. 

THE  MOON :  her  Motions,  Aspect,  Scenery,  and  Physical  Conditions. 
With  Three  Lunar  Photographs,  and  many  Plates,  Charts,  etc.  1 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     Price,  $5.00. 

THE  EXPANSE  OF  HEAVEN.  A  Series  of  Essays  on  the  Wonders 
of  the  Firmament.     1  vol.,  12n30.     Cloth.     Price,  $2,00. 

OUR  PLACE  AMONG  INFINITIES.  A  Scries  of  Essays  contrasting 
our  Little  Abode  in  Space  and  Time  with  the  Infinities  around  us. 
To  which  are  added  Essays  on  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  Astrology. 
1  vol.,  12mo.     Cloth.     Price,  $1.75. 


HELMHOLTZ  (H.),  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 
Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects.  Translated  by  E.  Atkinson, 
Ph.D.,  F.  C.  S.  With  an  Introduction  by  Prof.  Tyndall.  12mo. 
Cloth.     Price,  $2.00. 


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THE 


Experimental  Science  Series. 


In  neat   12nno  volumes,  bound  in   eloth,  fully  illus- 
trated..     Price  per  volume,  $1.00. 


This  series  of  scientific  books  for  boys,  girls,  and  students  of  everj"  age,  was  de- 
signed by  Prof.  Alfred  M.  Mayer,  Ph.  Lt.,  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, 
Hoboken,  New  Jersey.  Every  book  is  addressed  directly  to  the  young  student,  aud 
be  is  taught  to  construct  his  own  apparatus  out  of  the  cheapest  and  most  common 
materials  to  be  found.  Should  the  reader  make  all  the  apparatus  described  in  the  first 
book  of  this  series,  he  will  spend  only  $12.40. 


NOW  KEADY: 

I.— LIGHT. 

A  Series  of  Simple,  Entertaining,  and  Inexpensive  Experiments  m  the  Phenoraena  of 
Light,  for  Students  of  every  Age. 

By  ALFRED  M.  MAYER  and  CHARLES  BARNARD. 


II.— SOUND: 

A  Series  of  Simple,  Entertaining,  and  Inexpensive  Experiments  in  the  Phenomena  of 
Sound,  for  the  Use  of  Students  of  every  Age. 

By  ALFRED  MARSHALL  MA  TER, 

Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technologr ;    Member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences ;  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia ;  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Boston ;  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Sciences ;  of  the  German  Astronomical  Society ;  of 
the  American  Otological  Society ;  and  Honorary  Mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  Ophthalmological  Society. 


In  Active  Prepakation  . 

III.  Vision  and  the  Kature  of  Light. 

IV.  Electricity  and  Magnetism. 
V.  Heat. 

VI.  Mechanics. 
VII.  Chemistry. 

VIII.  The  Art  of  experimenting  -with   Cheap  and   Simple  In- 
struments. 

D.  AFPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers,  549  &  551  Broadicay,  Nnc  York. 


A  New  Volume  of  the  "  International  Scientific  Series.''' 


STUDIES  IN  SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS. 

By  J.  NORMAN   LOCKYER,  F.  R.  S., 

COEEESPONDENT  OP  THE   INSTITUTE   OF  FRANCE,   ETC. 

With  60  Illustrations.       ....        lvol.,13mo.    Cloth,  $2.50. 


From  the  N'eio  York  Evening  Post. 
"The  peculiar  excellence  and  iiigh  ranli  of  all  the  preceding  volumes  of  this 
series  is  at  once  a  guarantee  of  the  high  value  and  character  of  this.  Mr.  Lorkyer 
has  in  this  vFork  entitled  himself  to  a  place  among  the  rare,  trood,  industrious, 
and  every  way  faithful  men  of  the  times,  -who  are  so  successfully  disseminating 
the  highest  and  most  advanced  kinds  of  useful  knowledge  among  the  people. 
These  men  are,  par  excellence,  the  uplifters  and  civilizers  of  humanity." 

From  the  iVew  York  Times. 
"Many  colored  plates  and  woodcuts  assist  the  eye  In  this  pleasantly-written 
little  treatise.  A  certain  amount  of  historical  matter  is  interspersed  here  and 
there.  To  Sir  William  Herschel,  and  the  elderDraper,  of  New  York,  the  nutlior 
gives  the  credit  of  the  first  steps  in  spectrum  photography;  but  the  telescope  of 
L.  M.  Rutherfurd,  of  New  York,  says  Mr.  Lockyer,  is  the  instrument  of  the  future, 
60  far  as  stellar  astronomy  is  concerned." 

From  the  New  York  Everdng  Express. 
"The  study  of  spectrum  analysis  is  one  fraught  with  a  peculiar  fascination, 
and  some  of  the  author's  experiments  are  exceedingly  picturesque  in  their  results. 
They  are  so  lucidly  descrihed,  too,  that  the  reader  keeps  on,  from  page  to  pa^'e, 
never  flagging  in  interest  in  the  matter  before  him,  nor  putting  down  the  book 
until  the  last  page  is  reached." 

From  the  Boston  Gazette. 
"Mr.  Lnckyer's  work  on  spectrum  analysis  is  admirably  adapted  to  instruct 
the  non-scientific  reader,  and  to  make  him  acquainted  with  the  results  of  one  of 
the  most  important  discoveries  of  the  century." 

From  the  Philadelphia  Weekly  Times. 
"Mr.  Lockyer  is  one  of  the  very  foremost  authorities  in  this  important  and 
interesting  department  of  scientific  research.    The  difliculties  of  the  subject  are 
in  large  measure  relieved  by  an  abundance  of  illustrations,  and  especially  by  the 
Colored  plates  and  the  remarkable  reproductions  of  spectrum  photographs." 

From  the  Providence  Journal. 
"Mr.  Lockyer  is  a  scientist  who  speaks  with  authority.    He  shows  the  mar- 
velous agency  of  spectrum  analysis,  and  tells  us  not  only  the  constituents  of  the 
3un,  but  clearly  explains  the  process  by  which  the  result  is  reached." 

From  the  Baltimo7-e  Gazette. 
"The  freshest  work  upon  this  interesting  subject." 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  549  &  551  Broadwat,  New  York. 


A  New  Vohime  of  the  ^^International  Scientific  Series.'* 


A     H  ISTORY 


Growth  of  the  Steam  -  Engine, 

By  EOBEET  H.   THUESTON,  A.M.,  0.  E., 

Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering  in  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  etc.,  etc. 

With  163  Illustrations,  including  15  JPortraits. 


1  vol.,  12mo Price,  $2.50. 


COIsTTKNTS. 

I.  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  AS  A  SIMPLE  MACHINE. 
II.  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  AS  A  TRAIN  OF  MECHANISM. 

III.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MODEEN  STEAM-ENGINE. 

IV.  and  V.  THE  MODEEN  STEAM-ENGINE. 
VL  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  OF  TO-DAY. 

VIL  and  VIII.  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

"This  is  the  most  exhaustive,  lucid,  and  trustworthy  account  of  a  most  interesting 
subject.  There  are  two  features  of  the  work  to  which  we  would  direct  particular  at- 
tention. One  is  the  full  and  careful  sj'nopsis  of  the  records  and  traditions  relating  to 
the  first  discovery  and  gradual  development  of  the  essential  principle  of  heat-engines. 
The  other  is  the  chapter  outlining  the  direction  and  limitations  of  improvement  iii  the 
future."— iV««<;  York  Sun. 

"Prof.  Thurston  almost  exhausts  his  subject;  details  of  mechanism  are  followed  by 
interesting  biographies  of  the  more  important  inventors.  If.  as  Prof  Thurston  con- 
tends, the  steam-engine  is  the  most  important  physical  agent  in  civilizing  the  world, 
its  history  is  a  desideratum,  and  the  readers  of  the  present  work  will  agiee  that  it 
could  have  a  no  more  amusing  and  intelligent  historian  than  our  author." — Boston 
Gazette. 

"One  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  volumes  in  Appletons'  'International 
Scientific  Series." " — yew  York  Express. 

"The  work  is  all  that  it  professes  to  be— a  brief  encyclopaedia  of  the  genesis  and 
development  of  that  great  instrument  which  is  to-day  the"  right  hand  of  human  power. 
It  is  a  work  of  real  erudition  and  much  practical  use." — Philadelphia  North  American. 

"  It  gives  not  only  the  tiistory  of  the  steam-engine,  but  of  the  several  inventors  of 
all  countries  who  have  created  and  improved  it,  with  descriptions  of  all  kinds  and 
varieties  of  engines  and  their  improvements,  stationary,  pumping,  locomotive,  steam- 
bo.its,  propellers,  iron-clads,  fire-engines,  beam,  horizontal,  oscillating,  smgle,  coupled, 
direct,  compressed,  high  and  low  pressure,  link-valves,  slide-valves,  ball  and  poppet- 
valves,  lever  valves,  condensing  and  noncondensing,  all  sorts  of  boilers,  etc  ,  with  many 
anecdotes  and  interesting  incidents."— JSo«tow  Post. 


D.  APPLET  ON  &  CO.,  649  &  5S1  Broadway,  New  York. 


RAMBLES  IN  WONDERLAND; 

OR, 

Up  the  Yellowstone,  and  among  the  Geysers  and  other  Curiosities  of  the 
Na  tion  a  I  Pa  rk. 

By  EDWIN   J.  STANLEY. 
WITH    MAP    AND    TWELVE    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Large  123io.     Paper  ctTer,  price,  75  cents ;  cloth,  $L25. 


"  The  natural  wonders  of  the  Great  West,  and  especially  those  of  the 
Yellowstone  region,  have  been  frequently  described.  But  it  can  be  safely 
said  that,  however  familiar  they  may  have  become,  either  through  books 
or  by  travel  there,  every  one  will  find  these  sketches  of  them  well  worth 
reading.  It  is  a  most  impressive  volume ;  and  this  comes  from  the  fact 
that  the  author  gives  a  plain  and  clear  description,  and  does  not  attempt 
to  portray  the  wonder  or  the  admiration  which  he  himself  felt.  The  re- 
sult is,  that  the  grandeur  of  the  objects  themselves  reaches,  directly  and 
naturally,  the  soul  of  every  reader.  We  commend  the  volume  as  one 
which,  in  the  first  place,  has  an  abundance  of  things  which  every  Ameri- 
can, at  least,  ought  to  know,  and  one  which,  in  the  second  place,  is  un- 
usually readable." — .V.   Y.  Churchman. 

"  Mr.  Edwin  J.  Stanley  has  made  a  book  with  the  title  '  Rambles  in 
Wonderland'  out  of  his  notes  and  letters  written  during  a  season  of 
travel  up  the  Yellowstone  River  and  through  the  Yellowstone  Park.  The 
book  pretends  to  no  special  literary  excellence,  but  is  briskly  written, 
and  may  be  read  with  interest.  Some  of  its  descriptions  are  very  graphic 
and  picturesque,  and,  with  its  excellent  illustrations,  it  is  a  travel-sketch 
of  much  interest  and  value." — N.   Y.  Evening  Post. 

"  The  famous  cations,  the  hot  springs  or  geysers,  the  National  Park, 
the  Indian  agencies,  the  tribes  of  the  Sioux,  Crows,  and  other  aboriginals ; 
Indian  fighting,  the  massacre  of  pleasure-parties  in  the  National  Park, 
hunting,  fishing,  and  the  usual  adventures  of  travel  in  a  wild  country,  are 
among  the  subjects  treated." — N.   Y.  Home  Journal. 

"  An  account  of  the  summer  rambles  of  a  Methodist  preacher  in  the 
wondrous  Yellowstone  region.  The  liumerous  chapters  are  vivid  pictures 
of  the  journey  to  and  through  that  enchanted  land." — N.  Y.  Christian 
Advocate. 

"  This  is  a  well-printed  book  of  1*79  pages,  by  a  worthy  and  useful 
Southern  Methodist  preacher — one  of  our  brethren  on  the  far  frontier  of 
the  new  Northwest.  There  is  much  in  the  book  to  interest  and  instruct. 
It  is  pleasant  reading  for  a  man ;  it  would  delight  a  boy  with  any  soul  in 
him." — 3Iacon  (Ga.)  Wesleyan  Chi'istian  Advocate. 


D.  APPLETON  k  CO.,  549  &  551  Broadway,  New  York. 


^V  O  R  K  s 

OF 

WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 


Illustrated   8vo  Edition  of  Bryant's    Poetical  Works.     100 

Engravings  by  Birket  Foster,  Harry  Fenn,  Alfred  Fredericks,  and 
other  Artists.  1  vol.,  8vo.  Cloth,  gilt  side  and  edge,  $4.00;  half 
calf,  marble  edge,  $6.00;  full  morocco,  antique,  $8.00;  tree  calf, 
$10.00. 

Household  Edition.  1  vol.,  12mo.  Cloth,  $2.00;  half  calf,  $4.00; 
morocco,  $5.00;  tree  calf,  $5.00. 

Red  Line  Edition.  With  24  Illustrations,  and  Portrait  of  Bryant, 
on  Steel.  Printed  on  tinted  paper,  with  red  line.  Square  12mo. 
Cloth,  extra,  $3.00;    half  calf,  $5.00;   morocco,  $7.00;   tree  calf, 

$8.00. 

Blue  and  Gold  Edition.  18mo.  Cloth,  gilt  edge,  $1.50;  tree 
exit;  marble  edge,  $3.00;  morocco,  gilt  edge,  $4.00, 


Letters  from  Spain  and  other  Countries.     1  vol.,  12mo.     Price, 

$1.25. 

The  Song  of  the  Sower.  Illustrated  with  42  Engravings  on  Wood, 
from  Original  Designs  by  Ilennessy,  Fenn,  Wiuslow  Homer,  Hows, 
Griswold,  Nehlig,  and  Perkins  ;  engraved  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
by  our  best  Artists.  Elegantly  printed  and  bound.  Cloth,  extra 
gilt,  $5.00 ;  morocco,  antique,  $9.00. 

The  Story  of  the  Fountain.  With  42  Illustrations  by  Harry  Fenn, 
Alfred  Fredericks,  John  A.  Hows,  Wlnslow  Homer,  and  others.  In 
one  handsome  quarto  volume.  Printed  in  the  most  perfect  manner, 
on  heavy  calendered  paper.  Uniform  with  "  The  Song  of  the  Sower." 
8vo.     Square  cloth,  extra  gilt,  $5.00 ;  morocco,  antique,  $9.00. 

The  Little  People  of  the  Snow.  Illustrated  with  exquisite  En- 
gravings, printed  in  Tints,  from  Designs  by  Alfred  Fredericks.  Cloth, 
$5.00 ;  morocco,  $9.00. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  549  &  651  Broadway,  New  Yokk. 


